Buddha from space—An ancient object of art made of a Chinga iron meteorite fragment*

Abstract– The fall of meteorites has been interpreted as divine messages by multitudinous cultures since prehistoric times, and meteorites are still adored as heavenly bodies. Stony meteorites were used to carve birds and other works of art; jewelry and knifes were produced of meteoritic iron for instance by the Inuit society. We here present an approximately 10.6 kg Buddhist sculpture (the “iron man”) made of an iron meteorite, which represents a particularity in religious art and meteorite science. The specific contents of the crucial main (Fe, Ni, Co) and trace (Cr, Ga, Ge) elements indicate an ataxitic iron meteorite with high Ni contents (approximately 16 wt%) and Co (approximately 0.6 wt%) that was used to produce the artifact. In addition, the platinum group elements (PGEs), as well as the internal PGE ratios, exhibit a meteoritic signature. The geochemical data of the meteorite generally match the element values known from fragments of the Chinga ataxite (ungrouped iron) meteorite strewn field discovered in 1913. The provenance of the meteorite as well as of the piece of art strongly points to the border region of eastern Siberia and Mongolia, accordingly. The sculpture possibly portrays the Buddhist god Vai?ravana and might originate in the Bon culture of the eleventh century. However, the ethnological and art historical details of the “iron man” sculpture, as well as the timing of the sculpturing, currently remain speculative.     

The need for and use of socio-economic scenarios for climate change analysis: A new approach based on shared socio-economic pathways

Socio-economic scenarios constitute an important tool for exploring the long-term consequences of anthropogenic climate change and available response options. A more consistent use of socio-economic scenarios that would allow an integrated perspective on mitigation, adaptation and residual climate impacts remains a major challenge. We assert that the identification of a set of global narratives and socio-economic pathways offering scalability to different regional contexts, a reasonable coverage of key socio-economic dimensions and relevant futures, and a sophisticated approach to separating climate policy from counter-factual “no policy” scenarios would be an important step toward meeting this challenge. To this end, we introduce the concept of “shared socio-economic (reference) pathways”. Sufficient coverage of the relevant socio-economic dimensions may be achieved by locating the pathways along the dimensions of challenges to mitigation and to adaptation. The pathways should be specified in an iterative manner and with close collaboration between integrated assessment modelers and impact, adaptation and vulnerability researchers to assure coverage of key dimensions, sufficient scalability and widespread adoption. They can be used not only as inputs to analyses, but also to collect the results of different climate change analyses in a matrix defined by two dimensions: climate exposure as characterized by a radiative forcing or temperature level and socio-economic development as classified by the pathways. For some applications, socio-economic pathways may have to be augmented by “shared climate policy assumptions” capturing global components of climate policies that some studies may require as inputs. We conclude that the development of shared socio-economic (reference) pathways, and integrated socio-economic scenarios more broadly, is a useful focal point for collaborative efforts between integrated assessment and impact, adaptation and vulnerability researchers.     

A Middle‐Late Triassic 40Ar/39Ar age for the Paasselkä impact structure (SE Finland)

Abstract– ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating of recrystallized feldspar glass particles separated from clast‐rich impact melt rocks from the approximately 10 km Paasselkä impact structure (SE Finland) yielded a Middle to Late Triassic (Ladinian‐Karnian) pseudo‐plateau age of 228.7 ± 3.0 (3.4) Ma (2σ). This new age makes Paasselkä the first known Triassic impact structure dated by isotopic methods on the Baltic Shield. The new Paasselkä impact age is, within uncertainty, coeval with isotopic ages recently obtained for the Lake Saint Martin impact structure in Canada, indicating a new Middle to Late Triassic impact crater population on Earth. The comparatively small crater size, however, suggests no relationship between the Paasselkä impact and a postulated extinction event at the Middle/Late Triassic boundary.     

Orientation and nature of active crustal stresses determined by electromagnetic measurements in the Patagonian segment of the South America Plate

Based on electromagnetic measurements we determined the current stress directions in the uppermost continental crust of Patagonia between the active plate margin of the Chilean Pacific coast and the Argentinean passive Atlantic margin. Regional variations of the observed stress pattern are giving details onto the acting tectonic processes. We distinguish five regional stress domains with different prevailing horizontal stress directions (S_H): 1. Southern Coastal Cordillera and Longitudinal Valley (S_H = SSW–NNE), 2. Chiloé Island (S_H = SW–NE), 3. Northern Patagonian Andes (S_H = WSW–ENE), 4. Argentinean Pampa and Atlantic margin (S_H = WNW–ESE) and 5. Southern Patagonian Andes (S_H = WNW–ESE). These stress regimes can be related to the geometry of the subducting Nazca- and Antarctic plates, to the transform fault between the South America and Scotia plates and to passive margin processes along the Atlantic coast. Absolute plate motion and rapid relative plate convergence control the subduction geometry and therefore the stress directions along the convergent margin of the South America Plate and the structural style within and landward of the Magmatic Arc. The knowledge of current local stress directions permits the characterisation of potential fault kinematics. By in situ measuring of electromagnetic emissions from rocks we determined the maximum horizontal stress orientation in the uppermost crust using a new geophysical tool. Our investigations on the orientation of the stress regimes also allow conclusions about the causative forces of either tectonic or gravitational origin in this part of the South-America Plate.     

A case study of severe clear-air turbulence

Summary On January 19, 1961, 1816 MST (=January 20, 0116 GCT), a B-52 aircraft was lost in severe clear-air turbulence (CAT) over northwestern New Mexico. This report describes the weather conditions in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere at the time of the accident. A working hypothesis on the formation of CAT proposed in previous papers is in good agreement with the data presented here.

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Zusammenfassung Am 19. Januar 1961 um 1816 Mountain Standard Time (=20. Januar 1961, 0116 GCT) verursachte eine schwere Clear-Air-Turbulenz (CAT) über Nordwest-Neumexiko, USA, den Verlust eines Flugzeuges vom Typ B-52. Der vorliegende Bericht beschreibt die Witterungsbedingungen in der oberen Troposphäre und der unteren Stratosphäre zur Zeit des Unfalls. Eine Arbeitshypothese über das Zustandekommen von Clear-Air-Turbulenz, die in früheren Veröffentlichungen dargelegt wurde, steht in guter Übereinstimmung mit den hier vorgelegten Daten.

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Résumé Une très forte turbulence en air clair (CAT) a provoqué la chute d'un avion du type B-52 sur le Nouveau-Méxique (Etats-Unis); ce phénomène s'est produit le 19 janvier 1961 à 18 h 16 «Mountain Standard Time» (=20 janvier 1961 à 01 h 16 GMT). Le présent mémoire décrit les conditions météorologiques régnant au moment de l'accident et cela aussi bien dans la haute troposphère que dans la stratosphère inférieure. Une hypothèse de travail décrite dans de précédentes publications, hypothèse concernant l'apparition de «Clear-Air-Turbulence» (CAT), correspond très bien aux conditions spéciales décrites ici.

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With 4 Figures

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This report has been prepared under Contract No. N 189(188) 55120 A with U.S. Navy Weather Research Facility.     

Quasi-biennial variations in the winter-time circulation of high latitudes

Summary In the years between 1952 and 1962 a quasi-biennial modulation became apparent in the total ozone values measured over Arosa, Switzerland, during spring. The stratospheric vortex behavior in the northern hemisphere during March of the years 1958 to 1964 also showed a biennial variation. This has led to speculations that the quasi-biennial forcing of the tropical stratosphere may extend its influence to the stratosphere and troposphere of high latitudes. It is shown in this paper that the stratosphere and troposphere of high latitudes in the northern hemisphere, indeed, are coupled by a feedback mechanism. The forcing from tropical latitudes, however, seems to be minimal.

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Die quasi-biennale Veränderlichkeit der Zirkulation in hohen Breiten während des Winters

Zusammenfassung Während der Jahre 1952 bis 1962 wurde in den über Arosa, Schweiz, im Frühling gemessenen Gesamtozonwerten eine quasi-biennale Modulierung entdeckt. Das Verhalten des stratosphärischen Polarwirbels im März der Jahre 1958 bis 1964 zeigte ebenfalls eine zweijährliche Veränderlichkeit. Dies verleitete zur Schlußfolgerung, daß die quasi-biennale Einwirkung der tropischen Stratosphäre sich bis in die Stratosphäre und die Troposphäre hoher Breiten erstreckt. In der vorlegenden Studie wird gezeigt, daß die Stratosphäre und Troposphäre der Nordhalbkugel in hohen Breiten tatsächlich durch einen Rückkoppelungs-Mechanismus verbunden sind. Der Einfluß tropischer Breiten auf die Zirkulationsmodulierung scheint jedoch gering zu sein.

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With 14 Figures