Acoustic imaging,visualization, and quantification of buoyant hydrothermal plumes in the Ocean

We develop and apply visualization and quantification methods to reconstruct hydrothermal plumes in 3D from acoustic images and to make the first direct measurements from the reconstructions of scalar properties that describe the behavior of two buoyant plumes discharging from adjacent black smoker chimneys. The actual behavior is then compared to that predicted by a classic simple buoyant plume model. The images are reconstructed as isointensity surfaces of backscatter from particulate matter suspended in the plumes. The measurements pertinent to the role of the plumes as agents of dispersal of heat and mass into the ocean include change with height of diameter, particle distribution, dilution, centerline attitude, surface protrusions, and connectivity. The protrusions are the surface expression of eddies and appear to follow a bifurcating helical flow pattern that resemble simulation of the naturally forced flow of coherent vortex rings as the eddies rise with the buoyant plume. These direct measurements and the derived entrainment coefficient are generally consistent with behavior predicted by the simple buoyant plume model and support engulfment by vortex shedding as a primary mechanism for entrainment of surrounding seawater. Deviations from predicted buoyant plume behavior are diagnostic of particle dynamics.     

Dispersal, Genetic Differentiation and Speciation in Estuarine Organisms

For some of their occupants, estuaries represent spatially discrete habitats, isolated from each other by barriers to dispersal or physiological tolerance. We present contrasting strategies for the retention or export of larvae from their estuary of origin, and consider the implications these have on population structure and divergence. Reported patterns of genetic differentiation and inferred gene flow in estuarine taxa (principally animals) are reviewed, and difficulties in the interpretation of existing genetic data discussed. Species concepts and models of speciation relevant to estuaries are outlined, and patterns of speciation of estuarine taxa reviewed. It is concluded that estuarine environments tend to restrict gene flow and impose distinct selective regimes, generating physiologically adapted populations divergent from their marine counterparts, and the potential for in situ speciation in complete or partial isolation. The resulting taxa may represent sibling or cryptic species groups of truly estuarine origin, rather than simply estuarine populations of marine eurytopes.     

Plankton distribution and vertical flux of biogenic matter during high summer stratification in the Krka estuary (Eastern Adriatic)

The aim of this study was to investigate phytoplankton abundance, composition and vertical export in the highly stratified Krka estuary, Croatia. The estuary is stratified throughout the year, and an interface between fresh- and brackish water plays an important role in production and degradation of biogenic matter. Vertical export of particulate organic carbon (POC), phytoplankton carbon (PPC) and faecal pellet carbon (FPC) was studied by deploying sediment traps in the middle and lower reach of the estuary and in the adjacent coastal zone. Zooplankton faecal pellet (FP) production experiments were conducted to provide additional information on the potential contribution of FP to the total carbon flux. High suspended concentrations of POC, chlorophyll a and phytoplankton was found in the lower reaches of the Krka estuary, adjacent to a source of anthropogenic eutrophication. The fraction of organic detritus to the total POC flux was 61–69% inside the estuary but only 7% at the marine station. This indicates that the primary producers in the surface layer of the Krka estuary are decomposed in and below the interface and then settle as detritus to the bottom. Low sedimentation rates in the coastal zone outside the estuary revealed that the eutrophication does not spread out of the estuary. Mesozooplankton played a modest role in vertical flux regulation, due to their low abundance and dominance of smaller forms as well as low faecal pellet production rates. It is concluded that processes taking place at the freshwater-seawater interface are of major importance for the vertical carbon flux in the investigated area.     

Seismic analyses of Cenozoic contourite drift development in the Northern Norwegian Sea

Four drift accumulations have been identified on the continental margin of northern Norway; the Lofoten Drift, the Vesterålen Drift, the Nyk Drift and the Sklinnadjupet Drift. Based on seismic character these drifts were found to belong to two main groups; (1) mounded, elongated, upslope accretion drifts (Lofoten Drift, Vesterålen Drift and Nyk Drift), and (2) infilling drifts (Sklinnadjupet Drift). The drifts are located on the continental slope. Mainly surface and intermediate water circulation, contrary to many North Atlantic and Antarctic drifts that are related to bottom water circulation, and sediment availability have controlled their growth. Sediments were derived both from winnowing of the shelf and upper slope and from ice sheets when present on the shelf. The main source area was the Vøring margin. This explains the high maximum average sedimentation rate of the nearby Nyk (1.2 m/ka) and Sklinnadjupet (0.5 m/ka) Drifts compared with the distal Lofoten (0.036 m/ka) and Vesterålen (0.060 m/ka) Drifts. The high sedimentation rate of the Nyk Drift, deposited during the period between the late Saalian and the late Weichselian is of the same order of magnitude as previously reported for glacigenic slope sediments deposited during glacial maximum periods only. The Sklinnadjupet Drift is infilling a paleo-slide scar. The development of the infilling drift was possible due to the available accommodation space, a slide scar acting as a sediment trap. Based on the formation of diapirs originating from the Sklinnadjupet Drift sediments we infer these sediments to have a muddy composition with relatively high water content and low density, more easily liquefied and mobilised compared with the glacigenic diamictons.     

Sediment movement under unidirectional flows: an assessment of empirical threshold curves

A selection of threshold data sets from previous investigations is used to re-examine, selectively, some of the empirical curves that are most commonly used for the prediction of sediment threshold. Simple analytical formulae are derived describing single line curves for mean threshold values and envelopes for the initial movement of discrete particles and the commencement of mass sediment transport phases of the critical condition.The complexity of factors governing the prevailing conditions at threshold, together with the randomness of events, limits deterministic solutions; however, the curves provide an approach that can be used readily in practical applications. In contrast, the envelope presentation is more of a stochastic approach to the definition of threshold. It recognises that there is no definitive threshold condition under which a particular particle size can be displaced, but rather that a range of threshold values exist.The empirical threshold relationships were derived on the basis of a relatively large amount of data. However, the sources utilised have interpreted the ‘critical condition’ in various ways, implying that the formulae must be treated with caution in applications.     

Intercomparison of coastal area morphodynamic models

Five different coastal area morphodynamic models have been set up to run on the same offshore breakwater layout and an intercomparison carried out on the hydrodynamic and morphodynamic output produced by each scheme. In addition, the predicted morphodynamics was checked against available laboratory and field data.It is concluded that the models are capable of producing realistic estimates for the dominant morphodynamic features associated with offshore breakwaters. Coupling of the wave, current and sediment transport components of each scheme is shown to yield bathymetry which attains a state of equilibrium, unlike models which are based on the initial transport field only.     

Harmonic generation past a submerged porous step

Experiments were conducted in a wave flume to study the differences between harmonic evolution of monochromatic waves as they propagate over a submerged impermeable or porous step under non-breaking conditions. Results are used as a preliminary analysis to establish some engineering design criteria on harmonic generation on submerged porous structures. The root-mean-squared wave height evolution is also studied and compared to linear models as a first approximation. It is shown that porous structure increases the effective relative depth and decreases the relative wave height, resulting in a lower Ursell number and a lower chance to generate harmonics. The effective water depth over a step as defined in the paper, provides information to evaluate the potential harmonic generation.     

An overview and general results of the Lopez island OBS experiment

The purpose of the experiment was to determine the effects of coupling and bottom currents on ocean bottom seismometers. Twelve operational OBSs, three specially designed three-component systems, and a hydrophone were compared with each other. Unlike seismometers placed on hard rock at land stations, ocean bottom seismometers can be affected by soft sediments (which act as lossy mechanical springs) and by buoyancy. Coupling through soft sediments can modify the response to ground motion much as a low pass filter does, and high buoyancy tends to counteract this effect. These effects are observed in the Lopez data, which consist of signals from mechanical transient tests, cap shots, airgun pulses, and general background noise. The modification of response is pronounced for some instruments and barely noticeable in others. Instruments that stand high in the water relative to their base width tend to be susceptible to rocking motion that shows up as a mechanical cross coupling between horizontal and vertical motion. Correlation of Lopez results with coupling theory suggests that it is possible to design ocean bottom seismometers that will couple well to any sediment. Current levels at the Lopez site (<5 cm s^-1) were too small to produce noticeable effect on any of the instruments; however, the same design criteria that will minimize coupling problems will also lessen problems caused by ocean currents.Hawaii Institute of Geophysics Contribution No. 1171.     

Sand ridges on the inner Atlantic shelf of North America: Morphometric comparisons with Huthnance stability model

Sand ridge fields on the inner shelf of the Middle Atlantic Bight are generally thought to have formed in response to northeasterly storm flows as the shoreface underwent erosional retreat with postglacial sea-level rise. However, the hydrodynamic mechanism is poorly unerstood. Coastal boundary models see the ridges as responses of the seafloor to distortions in the flow induced by the coastal boundary. Stability models propose that an irregular initial topography will evolve toward an ordered array of bedforms in response to repeated flow events. The two classes of models are not mutually exclusive, nor are members within each class mutually exclusive. Results of measurements of ridge spacing on the inner Atlantic shelf of North America agree with the predictions of stability models.     

Radium and lead-210 in marine barite

Measurements of ²²⁶Ra and ²¹⁰Pb in barite samples separated from different depths of a piston core from the eastern equatorial Pacific are reported. ²²⁶Ra is enriched in the barite as would be expected from the chemistries of Ra and Ba; the ${}^{226}\text{Ra}\text{Ba}$ ratio centers around 1.5 · 10¹⁴ atoms/mole. The results suggest that barite is concentrating Ra at a rate comparable to its decay rate, viz. 5.78 · 10^?3 yr^?1. The gross ²¹⁰Pb depletion with respect to ²²⁶Ra is indicative of ²²²Rn loss due to the smallness of the barite crystals.