The structural and tectonic evolution of a Rodinian continental fragment in the Mawson Escarpment,Prince Charles Mountains,Antarctica

Part of East Antarctica's shield collided with Greater India during assembly of the Rodinia supercontinent. The pre-Rodinia continental margin of the Antarctic landmass is represented by Palaeoproterozoic basement rocks of the Lambert Complex, which are best exposed in the North Mawson Escarpment area of Antarctica's Prince Charles Mountains. Having investigated the structure of this escarpment, we conclude that rocks of the Lambert Complex were stacked by oblique northward overthrusting motions while deforming pervasively in the infrastructure zone of a convergent orogen, i.e. when this continental fragment of pre-Rodinia Antarctica collided with India around 960–905 m.y. ago. This resulted in exhumation to shallower, but still deep, crustal levels, so that the deformation was accompanied by Barrovian-type metamorphism that evolved to high-temperature, low-pressure conditions. The metamorphism outlasted most of the ductile deformation with temperatures reaching 750 °C, though potentially greater, under pressure conditions of about 5 kbar. In this paper we outline the structures and, from a plate tectonics viewpoint, consider their likely association with Rodinian and Gondwanan orogens in East Antarctica, i.e. the Rayner and Prydz Belts.     

An automated routing methodology to enable direct rainfall in high resolution shallow water models

Recent high profile flood events have highlighted the need for hydraulic models capable of simulating pluvial flooding in urban areas. This paper presents a constant velocity rainfall routing scheme that provides this ability within the LISFLOOD‐FP hydraulic modelling code. The scheme operates in place of the shallow water equations within cells where the water depth is below a user‐defined threshold, enabling rainfall‐derived water to be moved from elevated features such as buildings or curbstones without causing instabilities in the solution whilst also yielding a reduction in the overall computational cost of the simulation. Benchmarking against commercial modelling packages using a pluvial and point‐source test case demonstrates that the scheme does not impede the ability of LISFLOOD‐FP to match both predicted depths and velocities of full shallow water models. The stability of the scheme in conditions unsuitable for traditional two‐dimensional hydraulic models is then demonstrated using a pluvial test case over a complex urban digital elevation model containing buildings. Deterministic single‐parameter sensitivity analyses undertaken using this test case show limited sensitivity of predicted water depths to both the chosen routing speed within a physically plausible range and values of the depth threshold parameter below 10 mm. Local instabilities can occur in the solution if the depth threshold is >10 mm, but such values are not required even when simulating extreme rainfall rates. The scheme yields a reduction in model runtime of ~25% due to the reduced number of cells for which the hydrodynamic equations have to be solved. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sea ice variations in the central Canadian Arctic Archipelago during the Holocene

A sea ice record for Barrow Strait in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) is presented for the interval 10.0–0.4 cal. kyr BP. This Holocene record is based primarily on the occurrence of a sea ice biomarker chemical, IP₂₅, isolated from a marine sediment core obtained from Barrow Strait in 2005. A core chronology is based on ¹⁴C AMS dating of mollusc shells obtained from ten horizons within the core. The primary IP₂₅ data are compared with complementary proxy data obtained from analysis of other organic biomarkers, stable isotope composition of bulk organic matter, benthic foraminifera, particle size distributions and ratios of inorganic elements. The combined proxy data show that the palaeo-sea ice record can be grouped according to four intervals, and these can be contextualised further with respect to the Holocene Thermal Maximum (HTM). Spring sea ice occurrence was lowest during the early–mid Holocene (10.0–6.0 cal. kyr BP) and this was followed by a second phase (6.0–4.0 cal. kyr BP) where spring sea ice occurrence showed a small increase. Between 4.0 and 3.0 cal. kyr BP, spring sea ice occurrence increased abruptly to above the median and we associate this interval with the termination of the HTM. Elevated spring sea ice occurrences continued from 3.0 to 0.4 cal. kyr BP, although they were more variable on shorter timescales. Within this fourth interval, we also provide evidence for slightly lower and subsequently higher spring sea ice occurrence during the Mediaeval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age respectively. Comparisons are made between our proxy data with those obtained from other palaeo-climate and sea ice studies for the CAA.     

Ediacaran terrane accretion within the Arabian–Nubian Shield

The Ad Dawadimi Terrane is an Ediacaran basin of the Arabian Nubian Shield (ANS), Saudi Arabia. This basin terrane is situated in the far eastern part of the ANS and represents the youngest accretion event of the exposed ANS. Therefore, the timing of events within the basin is key to understanding both the closure of the Mozambique Ocean and the amalgamation of Gondwana along the northern East African Orogen. Here we present U/Pb detrital zircon data for the Abt Formation, the principle basin sediments of the Ad Dawadimi Terrane, along with ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar ages on muscovite and whole rock Sm/Nd data. These data indicate that deep-water deposition in the Abt Basin did not end until after ca. 620 Ma and that deformation and greenschist-facies metamorphism of the Abt Formation occurred at 620 ± 3 (2σ) Ma along an active margin. This is the youngest terrane amalgamation event reported so far in the Arabian–Nubian Shield, but we suggest even younger sutures lie further east beneath the Phanerozoic cover of eastern Saudi Arabia. Our results suggest that the Ediacaran basins of the eastern ANS were not part of the Huqf basin in Oman, which was instead part of a passive margin of Neoproterozoic India, separated from the active margin of Africa by the Mozambique Ocean that probably did not close until the late Ediacaran or early Cambrian.     

Assessing spatial variability in soil characteristics with geographically weighted principal components analysis

Dimensionality reduction methods such as principal components analysis (PCA) provide a means of identifying trends in soil characteristics which may be represented by a wide range of variables. However, these characteristics may be highly spatially variable and so the results from PCA represent, in some sense, an “average” of locally distinct characteristics. One approach to account for these local differences is to introduce a geographical weighting scheme into the PCA process. In this paper, such an approach is assessed in the exploration of soil characteristics in the state of Pennsylvania, USA. Data from 878 georeferenced soil profiles which include different soil parameters (n = 12) were extracted from the National Soil Survey Center database. Where data are parts of compositions (e.g., percentages of sand, silt, and clay), analysis using raw data is not appropriate and such data were transformed using log ratios (specifically, balances). Single variables (i.e., those which are not parts of compositions) were logged. The first two principal components explain over 50% of the variance. The mapped values suggest marked spatial variation in soil characteristics, but it is not possible to assess which of these variables explain most variation in particular regions from the simple maps of raw variables. Geographically weighted PCA (GWPCA) provides additional information which is obscured by PCA, and it also provides a set of component scores and loadings at all data locations. The soil variable with the largest loading at most locations of Pennsylvania is the logged base saturation (BSln), and this supports the findings of the conventional PCA analysis. While BSln loads most highly in most of the eastern third, the middle and the south west of the state, the northwest is less spatially consistent in terms of the variables which explain most variation. For GWPC 1, the variable with the second largest loading at most locations (i.e., primarily the south and west) is CEC.B1 (the log ratio of Ca, Mg, and Na to K and EXACID), while CEC.B2 (the log ratio of Ca and Mg to Na), pHln (logged pH) and BSln dominate in other areas. The GWPCA results suggest that there is marked spatial variation in multivariate soil characteristics across Pennsylvania state and that results from standard PCA obscure this considerable variation.     

An innovative tailored seasonal rainfall forecasting production in Zimbabwe

Farmers?? adaptation to climate change over southern Africa may become an elusive concept if adequate attention is not rendered to the most important adaptive tool, the regional seasonal forecasting system. Uptake of the convectional seasonal rainfall forecasts issued through the southern African regional climate outlook forum process in Zimbabwe is very low, most probably due to an inherent poor forecast skill and inadequate lead time. Zimbabwe??s recurrent droughts are never in forecast, and the bias towards near normal conditions is almost perpetual. Consequently, the forecasts are poorly valued by the farmers as benefits accrued from these forecasts are minimal. The dissemination process is also very complicated, resulting in the late and distorted reception. The probabilistic nature of the forecast renders it difficult to interpret by the farmers, hence the need to review the whole system. An innovative approach to a regional seasonal forecasting system developed through a participatory process so as to offer a practically possible remedial option is described in this paper. The main added advantage over the convectional forecast is that the new forecast system carries with it, predominantly binary forecast information desperately needed by local farmers??whether a drought will occur in a given season. Hence, the tailored forecast is easier for farmers to understand and act on compared to the conventional method of using tercile probabilities. It does not only provide a better forecasting skill, but gives additional indications of the intra-seasonal distribution of the rainfall including onsets, cessations, wet spell and dry spell locations for specific terciles. The lead time is more than 3?months, which is adequate for the farmers to prepare their land well before the onset of the rains. Its simplicity renders it relatively easy to use, with model inputs only requiring the states of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) climate modes. The developed forecast system could be one way to enhance management of risks and opportunities in rain-fed agriculture among small-holder farmers not only in Zimbabwe but also throughout the SADC region where the impact of ENSO and/or IOD on a desired station rainfall is significant.     

Vulnerability of laptop computers to volcanic ash and gas

Laptop computers are vital components of critical infrastructure sectors and a common tool in broader society. As they become more widely used, their exposure to volcanic hazards will increase. Therefore, understanding how laptops will function in volcanic environments is necessary to provide suitable mitigation options. In this study, laptop computers were subjected to volcanic ash and gas in both laboratory and field settings. None of the laptops sustained permanent damage in laboratory experiments; however, ash contamination did reduce the functionality of keyboards, CD drives, and cooling fans. Several laptops shut down temporarily due to overheating following ash contamination. In field experiments, laptops were exposed to high concentrations of volcanic gases at White Island, New Zealand. These laptops did not sustain permanent damage as only a small amount of gas was able to enter the laptops. However, metal components on the outside of the laptop did sustain minor corrosion. Re-examination of the laptops after 6?months indicated they were in full working order. Printed circuit boards suffered significant corrosion damage and ceased working only when in direct and sustained contact with volcanic gases. Simple mitigation techniques such as isolating laptops inside heavy duty polyethylene bags were effective. Overall, our experiments demonstrate that laptops have a relatively low risk of damage from volcanic ash and gas exposure, but have a low-medium risk of loss of functionality in ash environments. We think this has implications for other electronic equipment used extensively in critical infrastructure services.     

Apollo 12 Lunar Module exhaust plume impingement on Lunar Surveyor III

Understanding plume impingement by retrorockets on the surface of the Moon is paramount for safe lunar outpost design in NASA’s planned return to the Moon for the Constellation Program. Visual inspection, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and surface scanned topology have been used to investigate the damage to the Lunar Surveyor III spacecraft that was caused by the Apollo 12 Lunar Module’s close proximity landing. Two parts of the Surveyor III craft returned by the Apollo 12 astronauts, Coupons 2050 and 2051, which faced the Apollo 12 landing site, show that a fine layer of lunar regolith coated the materials and was subsequently removed by the Apollo 12 Lunar Module landing rocket. The coupons were also pitted by the impact of larger soil particles with an average of 103 pits/cm². The average entry size of the pits was 83.7 μm (major diameter) × 74.5 μm (minor diameter) and the average estimated penetration depth was 88.4 μm. Pitting in the surface of the coupons correlates to removal of lunar fines and is likely a signature of lunar material imparting localized momentum/energy sufficient to cause cracking of the paint. Comparison with the lunar soil particle size distribution and the optical density of blowing soil during lunar landings indicates that the Surveyor III spacecraft was not exposed to the direct spray of the landing Lunar Module, but instead experienced only the fringes of the spray of soil. Had Surveyor III been exposed to the direct spray, the damage would have been orders of magnitude higher.     

Multi-spacecraft study of foreshock cavitons upstream of the quasi-parallel bow shock

In this work we perform the first multi-spacecraft analysis of two foreshock cavitons observed by the Cluster spacecraft. We also study the characteristics of their surrounding regions. Foreshock cavitons are a relatively new type of phenomena in the Earth's foreshock. They appear in regions deep inside the foreshock and are therefore always immersed in a sea of ULF waves and suprathermal particles. In the observational data the cavitons appear as simultaneous depressions of interplanetary magnetic field and plasma density. The two cavitons presented here have highly structured interiors and exhibit surface irregularities. They propagate sunwards in the reference frame of the solar wind plasma. Since their velocities are smaller than the solar wind velocity, the cavitons are convected towards the Earth by the solar wind flow. Their sizes are comparable to the size of the Earth. We show that the cavitons are different from other foreshock phenomena, such as cavities. The latter are thought to form by thermal expansion due to the excess of thermal pressure caused by intense flux of suprathermal ions in their interiors. Thermal pressure inside the cavitons is the same as in their surroundings, so they cannot form in this way. The proposed mechanism for the caviton formation includes nonlinear interactions between different types of ULF waves deep inside the foreshock.     

A continuous multi-millennial record of surficial bivalve mollusk shells from the São Paulo Bight,Brazilian shelf

To evaluate the potential of using surficial shell accumulations for paleoenvironmental studies, an extensive time series of individually dated specimens of the marine infaunal bivalve mollusk Semele casali was assembled using amino acid racemization (AAR) ratios (n = 270) calibrated against radiocarbon ages (n = 32). The shells were collected from surface sediments at multiple sites across a sediment-starved shelf in the shallow sub-tropical São Paulo Bight (São Paulo State, Brazil). The resulting ¹⁴C-calibrated AAR time series, one of the largest AAR datasets compiled to date, ranges from modern to 10,307 cal yr BP, is right skewed, and represents a remarkably complete time series: the completeness of the Holocene record is 66% at 250-yr binning resolution and 81% at 500-yr binning resolution. Extensive time-averaging is observed for all sites across the sampled bathymetric range indicating long water depth-invariant survival of carbonate shells at the sediment surface with low net sedimentation rates. Benthic organisms collected from active depositional surfaces can provide multi-millennial time series of biomineral records and serve as a source of geochemical proxy data for reconstructing environmental and climatic trends throughout the Holocene at centennial resolution. Surface sediments can contain time-rich shell accumulations that record the entire Holocene, not just the present.