A Recent Shellfish Toxin Investigation in China

A shellfish toxin investigation along the Chinese coast has recently been conducted using both HPLC and mouse assay methods. The results showed that DSP was widely distributed in different shellfish species in China. 26 out of 89 samples had DTX1 (dinophysistoxin-1) or OA (okadaic acid) but the DSP content in most shellfish samples did not reach the regulatory limit for human consumption adopted in many countries (20 μg/100 g soft tissue). PSP was also found in 5 out of 96 samples along the coast. One sample, Chlamys nobilis from Hong Kong contained high levels of PSP (320 μg STX equivalent/100 g soft tissue), compared to the regulatory limit (80 μg STX equivalent/100 g soft tissue). After the recent outbreak of red tide in Hong Kong waters, three further shellfish samples were collected within 40 days to investigate the impacts of this event. It was shown that high levels of PSP continued to exist in Hong Kong waters. This report provides the first report of DSP and PSP distribution along the Chinese coast.     

Modelling blue and green water availability under climate change in the Beninese Basin of the Niger River Basin,West Africa

The aim of this study was to quantify climate change impact on future blue water (BW) and green water (GW) resources as well as the associated uncertainties for 4 subbasins of the Beninese part of the Niger River Basin. The outputs of 3 regional climate models (HIRHAM5, RCSM, and RCA4) under 2 emission scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) were downscaled for the historical period (1976–2005) and for the future (2021–2050) using the Statistical DownScaling Model (SDSM). Comparison of climate variables between these 2 periods suggests that rainfall will increase (1.7% to 23.4%) for HIRHAM5 and RCSM under both RCPs but shows mixed trends (?8.5% to 17.3%) for RCA4. Mean temperature will also increase up to 0.48 °C for HIRHAM5 and RCSM but decrease for RCA4 up to ?0.37 °C. Driven by the downscaled climate data, future BW and GW were evaluated with hydrological models validated with streamflow and soil moisture, respectively. The results indicate that GW will increase in all the 4 investigated subbasins, whereas BW will only increase in one subbasin. The overall uncertainty associated with the evaluation of the future BW and GW was quantified through the computation of the interquartile range of the total number of model realizations (combinations of regional climate models and selected hydrological models) for each subbasin. The results show larger uncertainty for the quantification of BW than GW. To cope with the projected decrease in BW that could adversely impact the livelihoods and food security of the local population, recommendations for the development of adequate adaptation strategies are briefly discussed.     

Multi-spacecraft Observations of CIR-Associated Ion Increases During the Ulysses 2007 Ecliptic Crossing

The period between 21 June and 8 October, 2007 (Carrington rotations 2058 to 2061), comprising the Ulysses ecliptic plane crossing, was characterized by low solar activity. Excluding the small solar energetic particle events observed during July, the ion increases observed in the inner heliosphere between 100?keV/n and 10?MeV/n were associated with Corotating Interaction Regions (CIRs). In this work, we investigate CIR-related ion increases using multipoint observations from Ulysses, ACE, and the twin STEREO spacecraft. The ballistic backmapping technique has been used to correlate in situ observations of these spacecraft and remote-sensing observations of coronal holes. Although the radial, longitudinal and latitudinal separation of the spacecraft (except Ulysses) are relatively small, we find discrepancies when a detailed comparison of narrow structures like stream interfaces and CIR-associated shocks is performed. Therefore we concentrate on the two CIR events from day 5 to day 10 of August 2007 and from day 25 to day 31 of August 2007, which lend themselves to a more undisturbed comparison. Using the multi-spacecraft measurements we could determine a radial gradient of 230±30% AU^?1, which is consistent with previous results by van Hollebeke et al. (J. Geophys. Res. 83, 4723, 1978) of ～?350% AU^?1 using Helios and Pioneer data.

     

Trace element partitioning between orthopyroxene and anhydrous silicate melt on the lherzolite solidus from 1.1 to 3.2 GPa and 1,230 to 1,535°C in the model system Na<Subscript>2</Subscript>O–CaO–MgO–Al<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript>–SiO<Subscript>2</Subscript>

We determined experimentally the Nernst distribution coefficient between orthopyroxene and anhydrous silicate melt for trace elements i in the system Na₂O–CaO–MgO–Al₂O₃–SiO₂ (NCMAS) along the dry model lherzolite solidus from 1.1 GPa/1,230°C up to 3.2 GPa/1,535°C in a piston cylinder apparatus. Major and trace element composition of melt and orthopyroxene were determined with a combination of electron microprobe and ion probe analyses. We provide partitioning data for trace elements Li, Be, B, K, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Sm, Nd, Yb, Lu, Hf, Ta, Pb, U, and Th. The melts were chosen to be boninitic at 1.1 and 2.0 GPa, picritic at 2.3 GPa and komatiitic at 2.7 and 3.2 GPa. Orthopyroxene is Tschermakitic with 8 mol% Mg-Tschermaks MgAl[AlSiO₆] at 1.1 GPa while at higher pressure it has 18–20 mol%. The rare earth elements show a continuous, significant increase in compatibility with decreasing ionic radius from D _La^opx−melt ∼ 0.0008 to D _Lu^opx−melt ∼ 0.15. For the high-field-strength elements compatibility increases from D _Th^opx−melt ∼ 0.001 through D _Nb^opx−melt ∼ 0.0015, D _U^opx−melt ∼ 0.002, D _Ta^opx−melt ∼ 0.005, D _Zr^opx−melt ∼ 0.02 and D _Hf^opx−melt ∼ 0.04 to D _Ti^opx−melt ∼ 0.14. From mathematical and graphical fits we determined best-fit values for D ₀^M1, D ₀^M2, r ₀^M1, r ₀^M2, E ₀^M1, and E ₀^M2 for the two different M sites in orthopyroxene according to the lattice strain model and calculated the intracrystalline distribution between M1 and M2. Our data indicate extreme intracrystalline fractionation for most elements in orthopyroxene; for the divalent cations D _i ^M2−M1 varies by three orders of magnitude between D _Co^M2−M1 = 0.00098–0.00919 and D _Ba^M2−M1 = 2.3–28. Trivalent cations Al and Cr almost exclusively substitute on M1 while the other trivalent cations substitute on M2; D _La^M2−M1 reaches extreme values between 6.5 × 10⁷ and 1.4 × 10¹⁶. Tetravalent cations Ti, Hf, and Zr almost exclusively substitute on M1 while U and Th exclusively substitute on M2. Our new comprehensive data set can be used for polybaric-polythermal melting models along the Earth’s mantle solidus. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Molecular composition and chemosystematic aspects of Cretaceous amber from the Amazonas,Araripe and Recôncavo basins,Brazil

Amber occurrences in Brazil are rare. In this regard, the molecular composition of three such fossil resin samples from Brazilian Cretaceous sedimentary basins has been analyzed to determine the botanical origin of the resins. The samples were collected from the Amazonas (Alter do Chão Formation), Araripe (Santana Formation, Crato Member) and Recôncavo (Maracangalha Formation, Caruaçu Member) basins. The mono-, sesqui- and diterpenoids in the extracts were used as chemosystematic markers when compared with terpenoids in extant conifers. The compounds were mainly diterpenoids and their degradation products from the labdane, podocarpane, pimarane and isopimarane classes, in addition to paraffins, methoxyphenols and carboxylic acids. Tetracyclic diterpenoids such as phyllocladane, kaurenol and kauranol were also present. The biomarker compositions are certainly typical for conifers and, given the absence of triterpenoids and diterpenoids such as ozic acid, angiosperms can be excluded as a botanical source. The absence of phenolic diterpenoids (ferruginol, totarol) and their derivatives excludes podocarpaceous affinities for the ambers from the Amazonas and Araripe basins. The fossil records of the embedding sediments (e.g. Araucariaceae pollen and leaves) support the proposal of an Araucariacae origin for these ambers, but Cupressaceae and Cheirolepidiaceae cannot be excluded. On the other hand, the presence of phyllocladane and kaurane derivatives is evidence for Araucariaceae or Podocarpaceae origins for the amber from the Recôncavo basin, but Cupressaceae cannot be excluded.     

Orthopyroxene rim growth between olivine and quartz at low temperatures (750–950°C) and low water concentration

Orthopyroxene reaction rims were synthesized between polished plates of natural olivine or synthetic forsterite and quartz at 1.9 GPa and temperatures of 750–950°C. The experiments were performed in a piston-cylinder apparatus after drying the samples at 600°C. Each experiment comprised 4 or 7 quartz-olivine contacts that were positioned along a temperature gradient. As a monitor for water content in the samples, the water concentration in the two olivines was determined by FTIR before and after the experiments. The orthopyroxene layers show two different structural variants. Type one (normal layers) has very constant thickness at each contact and formed with equal growth rates at both interfaces. Type two (bulging layers) comprises more irregular areas with 3–5 times thicker rims where porosity provides evidence for the local presence of a fluid. In the bulging layers the growth rate at the olivine-orthopyroxene interface exceeds that at the quartz-orthopyroxene interface. The relative growth rates at the interfaces are in accordance with SiO₂-immobile growth of the normal layers and SiO₂-mobile growth of the bulging layers. The natural olivine contains about 60 wt-ppm intracrystalline water before and after experiment and took up about 20 wt-ppm water molecular adsorbed to micro- and nanocracks and -pores during the runs. The synthetic forsterite contains about 7 wt-ppm internally adsorbed molecular water before and after experiment, and during the runs took up hydrogen equivalent to 3 wt-ppm adsorbed water. The IR spectra indicate that large parts of the point defects (possibly tetrahedral) were frozen-in at the conditions of the experiments. In both olivines a new band appeared at 3,355 or 3,357 cm^?1, respectively, equivalent to about 3 wt-ppm water that at the high pressure of the experiments and opx-buffered aSiO₂ of the experiments might already mean water saturation of the olivines. Despite the effective drying before experiment and the absence of porosity, the bulk diffusivity derived from the rim growth rates is perfectly in line with data from water-bearing piston-cylinder experiments at higher temperatures. The bulk diffusivity during rim growth is 4 to 7 orders of magnitude higher than an extrapolation of really dry experiments to the temperature range of this study.     

Holocene environmental change in the Skallingen area,eastern North Greenland,based on a lacustrine record

A lacustrine record from a small lake, Lille Sneha Sø, in the Skallingen area indicates that the region was deglaciated in the early Holocene, prior to 8000 cal. a BP. Deglaciation was probably triggered by high temperatures, but it took more than 1000 years for the lake and the catchment to stabilize. Chironomids were amongst the first invertebrates to colonize the lake. The fossil chironomid assemblage is fairly rich and comparable to other records from further south in Greenland. The pioneer vegetation in the area consisted of mosses and herbaceous plants. The oldest remains of woody plants (Salix arctica) are dated to c. 7700 cal. a BP, and remains of Dryas integrifolia appear at around 6700 cal. a BP; these are the only woody plants recorded. Maximum concentrations of chironomids, maximum occurrence of ephippia of the water flea Daphnia pulex, highest organic matter contents and lowest minerogenic input from c. 7700 to 4400 cal. a BP probably reflect the Holocene thermal maximum (HTM). The highest temperatures during the HTM are indicated around 7000 cal. a BP, when Salix arctica, which is considered a warmth‐loving plant, had a maximum. Comparisons with Holocene records from East and North Greenland show similar immigration histories and similar trends, with the Little Ice Age as the coldest period during the Holocene, culminating about 150 years ago. Subsequent warming does not indicate environmental conditions comparable to the HTM yet at this stage. The occurrence of several warmth‐demanding species particularly in the early Holocene sediments indicates redeposition and implies that temperatures in the past, most likely during an interglacial period, were significantly higher than during the HTM.     

Comparing biodiversity between protected savanna and adjacent non-protected farmland in the southern Kalahari

In this study we investigated the effect of different land use options (wildlife versus livestock) on species richness of plants and reptiles in the protected Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) versus adjacent non-protected farmland within the same savanna habitat type (Aoub dune veld) in the southern Kalahari, South Africa. Our results show that both plant and reptile species richness as well as plant cover and reptile abundance was significantly higher in the protected KTP than in the non-protected farmland. The higher proportion of shrub but lower proportions of perennial grass cover, herb cover, and herb species richness in the farmland can be explained by higher stocking rates and the differences in feeding behaviour between native wild ungulates (e.g. Antidorcas marsupialis, Oryx gazella) and livestock (mainly sheep). The reptile’s prey availability and microhabitats (perennial grass tussocks and rodent burrows) for thermoregulation and protection against predators were significantly lower in the farmland. To conclude, our results clearly show that long term effects of different land use options (wildlife in protected KTP versus extensive livestock production in the non-protected farmland) even within the same habitat type have led to significant changes in vegetation composition, availability of microhabitat structures and in the reptile community.     

Future mitigation commitments: differentiating among non-Annex I countries

Abstract

In the long term, any definition of adequacy consistent with UNFCCC Article 2 will require increased mitigation efforts from almost all countries. Therefore, an expansion of emission limitation commitments will form a central element of any future architecture of the climate regime. This expansion has two elements: deepening of quantitative commitments for Annex B countries and the adoption of commitments for those countries outside of the current limitation regime. This article seeks to provide a more analytical basis for further differentiation among non-Annex I countries. To be both fair and reflective of national circumstances, it is based on the criteria of responsibility, capability and potential to mitigate. Altogether, non-Annex I countries were differentiated in four groups, each including countries with similar national circumstances: newly industrialized countries (NICs), rapidly industrializing countries (RIDCs), ‘other developing countries’, and least developed countries (LDCs). Based on the same criteria that were used for differentiating among non-Annex I countries, a set of decision rules was developed to assign mitigation and financial transfer commitments to each group of countries (including Annex I countries). Applying these decision rules results in (strict) reduction commitments for Annex I countries, but also implies quantifiable mitigation obligations for NICs and RIDCs, assisted by financial transfers from the North. Other developing countries are obliged to take qualitative commitments, but quantifiable mitigation commitments for these countries and the LDC group would be not justifiable. As national circumstances in countries evolve over time, the composition of the groups will change according to agreed triggers.     

Determination of chlorophyll content of small water bodies (kettle holes) using hyperspectral airborne data

This study presents an approach for chlorophyll content determination of small shallow water bodies (kettle holes) from hyperspectral airborne ROSIS and HyMap data (acquired on 15 May and 29 July 2008 respectively). Investigated field and airborne spectra for almost all kettle holes do not correspond to each other due to differences in ground sampling distance. Field spectra were collected from the height of 30–35 cm (i.e. area of 0.01–0.015 m²). Airborne pixels of ROSIS and HyMap imageries cover an area of 4 m² and 16 m² respectively and their spectra are highly influenced by algae or bottom properties of the kettle holes. Analysis of airborne spectra revealed that chlorophyll absorption near 677 nm is the same for both datasets. In order to enhance absorption properties, both airborne hyperspectral datasets were normalized by the continuum removal approach. Linear regression algorithms for ROSIS and HyMap datasets were derived using normalized average chlorophyll absorption spectra for each kettle hole. Overall accuracy of biomass mapping for ROSIS data was 71%, and for HyMap 64%. Biomass mapping results showed that, depending on the type of kettle hole, algae distribution, the ‘packaging effect’ and bottom reflection lead to miscalculations of the chlorophyll content using hyperspectral airborne data.