Exploration and discovery in Yellowstone Lake: results from high-resolution sonar imaging, seismic reflection profiling, and submersible studies

‘No portion of the American continent is perhaps so rich in wonders as the Yellow Stone’ (F.V. Hayden, September 2, 1874)Discoveries from multi-beam sonar mapping and seismic reflection surveys of the northern, central, and West Thumb basins of Yellowstone Lake provide new insight into the extent of post-collapse volcanism and active hydrothermal processes occurring in a large lake environment above a large magma chamber. Yellowstone Lake has an irregular bottom covered with dozens of features directly related to hydrothermal, tectonic, volcanic, and sedimentary processes. Detailed bathymetric, seismic reflection, and magnetic evidence reveals that rhyolitic lava flows underlie much of Yellowstone Lake and exert fundamental control on lake bathymetry and localization of hydrothermal activity. Many previously unknown features have been identified and include over 250 hydrothermal vents, several very large (>500 m diameter) hydrothermal explosion craters, many small hydrothermal vent craters (1–200 m diameter), domed lacustrine sediments related to hydrothermal activity, elongate fissures cutting post-glacial sediments, siliceous hydrothermal spire structures, sublacustrine landslide deposits, submerged former shorelines, and a recently active graben. Sampling and observations with a submersible remotely operated vehicle confirm and extend our understanding of the identified features. Faults, fissures, hydrothermally inflated domal structures, hydrothermal explosion craters, and sublacustrine landslides constitute potentially significant geologic hazards. Toxic elements derived from hydrothermal processes also may significantly affect the Yellowstone ecosystem.     

Post-emplacement tilting of lava flows inferred from magnetic fabric study: the example of Oligocene lavas in the Jeanne d’Arc Peninsula (Kerguelen Islands)

Statistical analysis of the magnetic fabric of samples from several successive lava flows emplaced under similar conditions can allow determination of the mean flow direction when magnetic fabric data from individual flows do not lead to reliable results. A difference between the obtained flow direction and the present dip direction indicates that the flows were tilted after emplacement. For 2 successive series of flows on the Jeanne d’Arc Peninsula presently NNW dipping, this method shows lava emplacement along a SSW–NNE direction. This indicates a gentle tilting acquired during a period of weak deformation in the whole archipelago. Additionally, the magnetic fabric data allow the reconstruction of the different conditions of emplacement of these two series of lava flows and of formation of the local thick conglomerate interbedded between these series.     

Imaging buried Quaternary valleys using the transient electromagnetic method

Buried Quaternary valleys in Denmark are complex structures filled with various deposits consisting primarily of glacio-lacustrine clay, till and meltwater sand, and gravel. The valleys are important geophysical targets, because they often contain significant volumes of groundwater used for public water supply. About 700 km of buried valley structures have been imaged in the western part of Denmark by the transient electromagnetic (TEM) method. The ability to map the valleys depends primarily on valley geometry, infill architecture and the resistivity of the fill sediments as well as the substratum. One-dimensional (1-D) inversion models of the TEM soundings have been used to construct contour maps of 20 m average resistivities and depth to a good conductor, which provide images for geological interpretation. Images of buried valley morphology, fill properties, infill architecture, such as cut-and-fill structures, valley distribution and valley generations, are characterized for case studies from Hornsyld, Holstebro and the Vonsild/Agtrup areas of Denmark.     

Failure Mode and Spatial Distribution of Damage in Rothbach Sandstone in the Brittle-ductile Transition

— To elucidate the spatial complexity of damage and evolution of localized failure in the transitional regime from brittle faulting to cataclastic ductile flow in a porous sandstone, we performed a series of triaxial compression experiments on Rothbach sandstone (20% porosity). Quantitative microstructural analysis and X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging were conducted on deformed samples. Localized failure was observed in samples at effective pressures ranging from 5 MPa to 130 MPa. In the brittle faulting regime, dilating shear bands were observed. The CT images and stereological measurements reveal the geometric complexity and spatial heterogeneity of damage in the failed samples. In the transitional regime (at effective pressures between 45 MPa and 130 MPa), compacting shear bands at high angles and compaction bands perpendicular to the maximum compression direction were observed. The laboratory results suggest that these complex localized features can be pervasive in sandstone formations, not just limited to the very porous aeolian sandstone in which they were first documented. The microstructural observations are in qualitative agreement with theoretical predictions of bifurcation analyses, except for the occurrence of compaction bands in the sample deformed at effective pressure of 130 MPa. The bifurcation analysis with the constitutive model used in this paper is nonadequate to predict compaction band formation, may be due to the neglect of bedding anisotropy of the rock and multiple yield mechanisms in the constitutive model.     

Post-caldera activity in the Alban Hills volcanic district (Italy): 40Ar/39Ar geochronology and insights into magma evolution

We present 24 ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar ages for the youngest volcanic products from the Alban Hills volcanic district (Rome). Combined with petrological data on these products, we have attempted to define the chronology of the most recent phase of activity and to investigate the magma evolution of this volcanic district. The early, mainly explosive activity of the Alban Hills spanned the interval from 561±1 to 351±3 ka. After approximately 50-kyr of dormancy, a mainly effusive phase of activity took place, accompanied by the strombolian activity of a small central edifice (Monte delle Faete). This second phase of activity spanned the interval 308±2 to 250±1 ka. After another dormancy period of approximately 50-kyr, a new, hydromagmatic phase of activity started at 200 ka at several centers located to the southwest of the Monte delle Faete edifice. After an initial recurrence period of approximately 50-kyr, which also characterized this new phase of activity, the longest dormancy period (approximately 80-kyr) in the history of the volcanic district preceded the start of the activity of the Albano and Giuturna centers at 70±1 ka. Results of our study suggest a quasi-continuous magmatic activity feeding hydromagmatic centers with a new acme of volcanism since around 70 ka. Based on data presented in this paper, we argue that the Alban Hills should not be considered an extinct volcanic district and a detailed re-assessment of the volcanic hazard for the area of Rome is in order. Published online: 4 April 2003 Editorial responsibility: J. Donnelly-Nolan     

Numerical viscoelastic modelling by the spectral Laguerre method

Seismic wave propagation in a viscoelastic media can be described by a system of integro-differential equations. The solution of such equations requires special methods when using finite-difference techniques in the time domain. In the frequency domain, the integral terms are represented by complex elastic parameters. This paper presents an efficient algorithm for viscoelastic modelling based on the integral Laguerre transform for the approximation of temporal derivatives and for the calculation of convolution integrals. For the calculation of spatial derivatives, it is possible to use various methods: finite-difference and finite-element techniques, spectral and pseudo-spectral methods. We then obtain a system of algebraic equations with a matrix independent of the parameter m , i.e. the degree of the Laguerre polynomials. In this case, only the right-hand side of the system has recurrent dependence on the parameter m , which is an analogue of the temporal frequency in the frequency domain. The obtained system with a large number of right-hand sides can be solved using fast methods, where the matrix is transformed only once, as opposed to the frequency-domain approach, when the matrix is transformed for each temporal frequency.     

Computer Simulation of Shaped Charge Detonation Using Meshless Particle Method

Shaped charges are widely applied in the defense industry and civil engineering for penetrating hardened targets. Simulations of shaped charges are generally based on traditional grid-based numerical methods. Different from the existing literature, the SPH method is applied in this paper to simulate the detonation process of shaped charge explosive. The combination of the meshless, Lagrangian and particle nature inherent in the SPH method is very attractive in dealing with large deformations and large inhomogeneities in extremely transient situations such as detonation process. The SPH method and some related numerical aspects are briefly discussed first, followed by applications in simulating shaped charge detonations. The effects of different detonation cavity angles and different charge head lengths are investigated. The results demonstrate that major shaped charge detonation phenomena are captured with revealing observations.