The development of polygonal fault systems by syneresis of colloidal sediments

Polygonal fault systems occur in numerous sedimentary basins worldwide, are generally located on passive margins in onlap fill units and tend to comprise the finest grained sediments in this geological setting. These fault systems have been most thoroughly described in the central North Sea basin and the detailed structure shows a significant correlation with lithological variations, both vertically and laterally. Extension measured in stacked decoupled tiers of polygonal faults correlates positively with both clay fraction and smectite content. Lateral facies variations are also observed and indicate that time-equivalent sequences upslope from the smectite-rich polygonally faulted sediments are coarse-grained, clay-poor and undeformed. This leads us to believe that the structure and geometry of the fault system are controlled by the colloidal nature of the sediments, and that the volumetric contraction measured on seismic sections can be accounted for by syneresis of colloidal smectitic gels during early compaction. Syneresis results from the spontaneous contraction of a sedimentary gel without evaporation of the constituent pore fluid. This process occurs due to the domination of interparticle attractive forces in marine clays, dependent on environment, and is governed by the change of gel permeability and viscosity with progressive compaction. The process of syneresis can account for a number of structural features observed within the fault systems, such as tiers of faults, the location of maximum fault throw and growth components at upper fault tips. As such, this paper represents the first attempt to correlate microscale properties of clay-rich sediments to their macroscale seismic character.     

Evaluation of climate reanalysis and space-borne precipitation products over Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

This study aims to quantify the spatial distribution of errors in two climate reanalysis (ERA5 and CFSR) and two satellite (TMPA-RT and TMPA-V7) precipitation products over Bangladesh. The datasets are assessed against ground-based rain gauge observations to capture the extreme rainfall accumulations at daily temporal scale over a 5-year period (January 2010–December 2014). The bias ratio scores indicate that CFSR and TMPA-RT seriously overestimate the rainfall values over much of the study area. Whilst TMPA-V7 performs better than the other precipitation products, all datasets lose their detection skills substantially for higher quantile thresholds (i.e. above 50th and 75th percentiles). With respect to rainfall detection metrics – probability of detection (POD) and volumetric hit index (VHI) – both ERA5 and CFSR show superior performance (in the range 0.9–1.0 for all the analysis grid boxes). All rainfall datasets are equally good in terms of false alarm ratio (FAR) and volumetric FAR (VFAR), even though the lowest values are associated with ERA5 for higher quantiles. All products demonstrate a decrease in skill to capture the amount of rainfall but show satisfactory results to detect the rainfall events when using higher quantile thresholds (i.e. rainfall above the 50th and 75th percentiles) to sample the data before computing product skill.     

Emplacement mechanics of sandstone intrusions: insights from the Panoche Giant Injection Complex,California

The Panoche Giant Injection Complex (PGIC; California) constitutes the most complete sandstone intrusion network yet described, and is an excellent analogue for subsurface hydrocarbon reservoirs modified by sand remobilisation. Sandstone dykes and sills were intruded during the Late Palaeocene into slope mudstones of the Great Valley forearc basin, and are exposed for more than 300 km². The PGIC consists of dykes and sills and represents upwards infilling of natural hydraulic fractures sourced from highly overpressured Cretaceous sand bodies. Over 1300 orientation measurements show that dykes are almost randomly oriented with only a slight orientation bias trending NE–SW, N–S or NW–SE, suggesting either a horizontally isotropic state of stress during intrusion or modification of stress by newly‐formed fractures that override the remote stress. Dykes are segmented in a pattern consistent with radial propagation with fingering towards tips similar to that observed for other mixed mode fractures. Kinematic indicators reveal there was no systematic sense of opening for the intrusions. This is interpreted as the result of short‐range mechanical interactions. Cross‐cutting relationships between injections imply a diachronous timing and a fluid pressure in the source units that was in excess of the lithostatic load. Finally we document a suite of minor structures within the host section that allowed the strain of the forcefully intruded sand to be accommodated.     

Very early diagenesis in a calcareous,organic-rich mudrock from Jordan

The diagenesis in the organic-rich Cretaceous to Eocene Al Hisa Phosphorite Formation (AHP), Muwaqqar Chalk Marl Formation (MCM) and Umm Rijam Chert-Limestone Formation (URC) formations of Jordan can be linked directly to the fluctuating sedimentary environment of this shelf depositional system in the Middle to Late Eocene, and its influence on the composition of the deposited sediment and the early burial diagenetic environment. Most cementation was early, mostly within the first 10 m of burial, perhaps entirely within the first 100 m of burial. We propose that the siliceous cements are derived from biogenic silica, probably of diatoms, deposited in a shelf of enhanced productivity. Volumetrically, the most important processes were the redistribution of biogenic opal-A (diatoms) and calcite to form pervasive, layered and nodular cements. The formation of the silica and carbonate cements is closely linked through the effects their dissolution and precipitation have on pore fluid chemistry and pH. The chert beds have a biogenic silica origin, formed through replacement of diatoms and radiolaria by opal-CT, and subsequently by quartz. Calcite cement has carbonate derived from microbial diagenesis of organic matter and calcium derived from seawater. The Mg for early dolomite may have been generated by replacement of opal-CT by quartz, ore dissolution of unstable high Mg calcite bioclasts. The silica and carbonate diagenetic processes are both linked to microbial diagenesis of organic matter, and are intimately linked in both time and space, with pH possibly influencing whether a silica or a carbonate mineral precipitates. The paucity of metal cations capable of precipitating as sulphides is crucial to the creation of acidic pore water favourable to silica precipitation, either as opal-CT, chalcedony or quartz. The lack of clay minerals as a sink for the Mg required for opal-CT polymerisation is the principal factor responsible for the remarkably early silica cementation. All the diagenetic processes, with the probable exception of the opal-CT to quartz transition are early, almost certainly within the first 10 m of burial, possibly much less. A paragenetic sequence is presented here based on these two cores that should be tested against a wider core distribution to see whether this diagenetic history can be generalised throughout the basin. Warm bottom water temperatures probably led to silica diagenesis at much shallower burial depths than occurs in many other sedimentary basins. Silicified layers, in turn, commonly host fractures, suggesting that mechanical properties of the strata began to differentiate at a very early stage in the burial cycle. This has wide implications for processes linking diagenesis to deformation.     

Three‐dimensional seismic characterization of a complex sediment drift in the South China Sea: Evidence for unsteady flow regime

This study describes a previously unobserved reflection seismic configuration comprising a honeycomb planform and a repeated erosion/infill cross‐section, based on high‐resolution three‐dimensional/two‐dimensional seismic data and bathymetric data. The honeycomb structures cover an area of more than 5000 km² and are developed within the Late Miocene to recent deep‐water sediments of the north‐western South China Sea. Linear erosional troughs up to 10 km long and 1 km wide are widely developed in this area, are intimately related to the particular seismic configuration and interpreted to represent a new type of sediment drift that is caused by unsteady bottom current regimes operating since the Late Miocene. The unsteady bottom current regimes are suggested to be triggered by irregular seabed morphologies. Considerable sea‐floor topography was generated as a direct result of tectonic movements in the area since the Late Miocene, and this topography then influenced the pathways of strong bottom currents. This study highlights that: (i) an unsteady bottom current regime can be laterally extensive and persist for millions of years; (ii) structurally controlled sea‐floor relief plays an important role in controlling the depositional pattern; and (iii) the bottom currents were active since the Late Miocene, flowing from the south‐east through the Xisha–Guangle Gateway and crossing the honeycomb structure zone. This study documents a new style of drift and will help to improve current knowledge of palaeoceanography and understanding of the South China Sea deep‐water circulation which is at present still poorly understood.     

Spectroscopic Monitoring of Comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)

Earth, Moon, and Planets -