Fluid and enthalpy production during regional metamorphism

Models for regional metamorphism have been constructed to determine the thermal effects of reaction enthalpy and the amount of fluid generated by dehydration metamorphism. The model continental crust contains an average of 2.9 wt % water and dehydrates by a series of reactions between temperatures of 300 and 750° C. Large scale metamorphism is induced by instantaneous collision belt thickening events which double the crustal thickness to 70 km. After a 20 Ma time lag, erosion due to isostatic rebound restores the crust to its original thickness in 100 Ma. At crustal depths greater than 10 km, where most metamorphism takes place, fluid pressure is unlikely to deviate significantly from lithostatic pressure. This implies that lower crustal porosity can only be maintained if rock pores are filled by fluid. Therefore, porosities are primarily dependent on the rate of metamorphic fluid production or consumption and the crustal permeability. In the models, permeability is taken as a function of porosity; this permits estimation of both fluid fluxes and porosities during metamorphism. Metamorphic activity, as measured by net reaction enthalpy, can be categorized as endothermic or exothermic depending on whether prograde dehydration or retrograde hydration reactions predominate. The endothermic stage begins almost immediately after thickening, peaks at about 20 Ma, and ends after 40 to 55 Ma. During this period the maximum and average heat consumption by reactions are on the order 11.2·10^–14 W/cm³ and 5.9·10^–14 W/ cm³, respectively. The maximum rates of prograde isograd advance decrease from 2.4·10^–8 cm/s, for low grade reactions at 7 Ma, to 7·10^–10 cm/s, for the highest grade reaction between 45 and 58 Ma. Endothermic cooling reduces the temperature variation in the metamorphic models by less than 7% (40 K); in comparison, the retrograde exothermic heating effect is negligible. Dehydration reactions are generally poor thermal buffers, but under certain conditions reactions may control temperature over depth and time intervals on the order of 1 km and 3 Ma. The model metamorphic events reduce the hydrate water content of the crust to values between 1.0 and 0.4 wt % and produce anhydrous lower crustal granulites up to 15 km in thickness. In the first 60 Ma of metamorphism, steady state fluid fluxes in the rocks overlying prograde reaction fronts are on the order of 5·10^–11 g/cm²-s. These fluid fluxes can be accommodated by low porosities (<0.6%) and are thus essentially determined by the rate of devolitalization. The quantity of fluid which passes through the metamorphic column varies from 25000 g/cm², within 10 km of the base of the crust, to amounts as large as 240000 g/cm², in rocks initially at a depth of 30 km. Measured petrologic volumetric fluid-rock ratios generated by this fluid could be as high as 500 in a 1 m thick horizontal layer, but would decrease in inverse proportion of the thickness of the rock layer. Fluid advection causes local heating at rates of about 5.9·10^–14 W/cm³ during prograde metamorphism and does not result in significant heating. The amount of silica which can be transported by the fluids is very sensitive to both the absolute temperature and the change in the geothermal gradient with depth. However, even under optimal conditions, the amount of silica precipitated by metamorphic fluids is small (<0.1 vol %) and inadequate to explain the quartz veining observed in nature. These results are based on equilibrium models for fluid and heat transport that exclude the possibility of convective fluid recirculation. Such a model is likely to apply at depths greater than 10 km; therefore, it is concluded that large scale heat and silica transport by fluids is not extensive in the lower crust, despite large time-integrated fluid fluxes.     

Dissolved vanadium in rivers and estuaries

New measurements of dissolved vanadium in a variety of rivers and estuaries are presented here. The data indicate that the average concentration of dissolved vanadium in major rivers entering the ocean is 15 nmol/kg. Weathering rate and type of source rock, rather than solution chemistry or anthropogenic influences, appear to be the important factors in determining fluvial dissolved vanadium concentrations. Laboratory experiments suggest that in oxic waters vanadium is found predominantly in its most oxidized, anionic form (V(V)). Complexation with organic matter and formation of large colloidal species appear to be unimportant. Adsorption also appears to be a less important influence for vanadium than for some other trace elements such as zinc.In estuaries, vanadium behaves as a bioactive element, showing a close correspondence with the distribution of phosphate. The extent of estuarine vanadium removal is presently uncertain but may be low due to rapid remineralization of this element. Based on the river flux, the oceanic residence time for dissolved vanadium is estimated to be 100,000 years.     

Secondary flows and the pool-riffle unit: A case study of the processes of meander development

The major bedforms of gravel bed rivers, whether braided, meandering or straight, may be usefully resolved into pool-riffle units, each comprising a single scour pool together with an associated depositional shoal downstream. At low flow, the latter may be characterized by a single emergent bar-head and submerged riffle, or by a variety of remnant braid bars, depending upon the type of channel. Identification of pool-riffle units and observation of associated flow structures on a small meandering stream in northwest England has demonstrated important links between bedforms, flow patterns and channel change. Each unit appears to be associated with a systematic pattern of secondary flows, which are able to modify the bedforms and initiate meander development. Feedback links between plan morphology, flow patterns and erosive and depositional forces within these units ensure that each stage of meander growth has a characteristic style of channel change. Consequently, meanders tend to evolve by regular cycles of increasing curvature and complexity.     

Seasonal changes in surface level of a salt marsh creek

Nineteen surveys were carried out over a two-year period to determine the surface height of a salt marsh creek located on the north side of the River Esk, Cumbria, England. An AGA 112 electromagnetic distance measurer mounted on a Wild TI theodolite was used in conjunction with acrylic reflectors to follow the form of the ground. The results showed that there were no significant net trends in surface level, although seasonal variations of the order of 2 cm occurred. Vegetated areas responded in similar fashion to bare surfaces. It is thought that the elevational changes were attributable to the swelling of clay particles during the winter months rather than the effects of erosion and accretion.     

Effects of the Black River (Cape,South Africa) on the distribution and survival of marine psammofauna

The physicochemistry of the Black River and adjacent marine beach, in terms of tidal, daily and seasonal fluctuations of temperature and salinity, presents a highly stressed environment exacerbated by canalization of the river mouth. Riverine pollution further stresses this environment, producing low densities and diversities of marine infauna adjacent to the river. No fauna were found in the river mouth where typical estuarine conditions exist only during high tide. Tolerance of the dominant marine species, Cerebratulus fuscus, to temperature, salinity and river water combinations showed that mortality was more rapid after exposure to river water dilutions than after exposure to distilled water dilutions. Computer-generated models suggested that this species should survive conditions closer to the river than were observed. This confirmed additional stress due to pollution carried in the river from urban and industrial drainage. Lower river water temperatures during winter appear to ameliorate pollution stress, enhancing survivability of the infauna.     

Aliphatic components of Victorian brown coal lithotypes

Victorian brown coal occurs in five major lithotypes distinguishable by colour index, petrography and bulk chemical analyses. The distributions of solvent extractable (free) and base hydrolysable (bound) n-alkanes, n-monocar?ylic acids, n-?,ω-dicar?ylic acids, n-ω-hydroxycar?ylic acids and n-alcohols were determined for samples of each of the five lithotypes (lithotype profile) and for seven samples of identical lithotype classification spanning a 100 m interval (depth profile) taken from a continuous bore core. The distributions of free molecular components in all classes are indicative of the predominant higher plant origin of this immature coal and provide strong support for the view that different lithotypes have derived from different, yet fairly specific paleobotanical communities. Despite an overall similarity in the distributions of aliphatic components from samples of identical lithotype classification, changes in the absolute concentrations and carbon preference indices (CPIs) of specific functional classes are observed in response to catagenetic influences even across the very small rank interval of the depth profile samples. Molecular distributions of bound components are similar to those of their free counterparts except that CPIs are generally lower and the relative contributions of lower molecular weight homologues (i.e. <C₂₂) are higher. Thedistributions of bound dicar?ylic acids and hydroxycar?ylic acids appear to reflect variations in the oxic/anoxic nature of the depositional paleoenvironments.