Heat transfer to and from vegetated surfaces: An analytical method for the bulk exchange coefficients

The semi-analytical model outlined in a previous study (Massman, 1987) to describe momentum exchange between the atmosphere and vegetated surfaces is extended to include the exchange of heat. The methods employed are based on one-dimensional turbulent diffusivities and use analytical solutions to the steady-state diffusion equation. The model is used to assess the influence that (1) the canopy foliage structure and density, (2) the wind profile structure within the canopy, and (3) the shelter factor can have upon the inverse surface Stanton number (kB ^–1) as well as to explore the consequences of introducing a scalar displacement height which can be different from the momentum displacement height. In general, the triangular foliage area density function gives results which agree more closely to observations than that for constant foliage area density. The intended application of this work and its predecessor (Massman, 1987) is for parameterizing the bulk aerodynamic resistances for heat and momentum exchange for use within large-scale models of plant-atmosphere exchanges.     

Rates of sulfur dioxide and particle emissions from White Island volcano,New Zealand,and an estimate of the total flux of major gaseous species

Airborne correlation spectrometry (COSPEC) was used to measure the rate of SO₂ emission at White Island on three dates, i.e., November 1983, 1230 ± 300 t/d; November 1984, 320 ± 120 t/d; and January 1985, 350 ± 150 t/d (t = metric tons). The lower emission rates are likely to reflect the long-term emission rates, whereas the November 1983 rate probably reflects conditions prior to the eruption of December 1983. The particle flux in the White Island plume, as determined with a quartz crystal microbalance/cascade in November 1983, was 1.3 t/d, unusually low for volcanic plumes. The observed plume particles, as shown from scanning electron microscopy, include halite, native sulfur, and silicates and are broadly similar to other volcanic plumes.Gas analyses from high-temperature volcanic fumaroles collected from June 1982 through November 1984 werde used together with the COSPEC data to estimate the flux of other gas species from White Island. The rates estimated are indicative of the long-term volcanic emission, i.e., 8000–9000 t/d H₂O, 900–1000 t/d CO₂, 70–80 t/d HCl, 1.5–2 t/d HF, and about 0.2 t/d NH₃. The long-term thermal power output at White Island is estimated at about 400 MW.     

The flume net: A quantitative method for sampling fishes and macrocrustaceans on tidal marsh surfaces

We describe the use of flume nets for passively, quantitatively, and nondestructively sampling fishes and macrocrustaceans on tidal marsh surfaces. We captured 3,765 organisms of 23 species in 118 samples using six such nets in a Virginia tidal freshwater marsh in 1984. Efficiency estimates for four common species of fishes range from 53 to 80%. Flume nets are most suited to the collection of long-term data and are particularly useful in elucidating seasonal trends in species composition and relative abundance. These nets are also useful in comparing different microhabitats within and between marshes. This method is most applicable to intertidal habitats with predictable lunar tides, including mud flats, mangrove swamps, and other wetlands.     

Deformation produced by oblique rifting

With oblique rifting, both extension perpendicular to the rift trend and shear parallel to the rift trend contribute to rift formation. The relative amounts of extension and shear depend on α, the acute angle between the rift trend and the relative displacement direction between opposite sides of the rift. Analytical and experimental (clay) models of combined extension and left-lateral shear suggest the fault patterns produced by oblique rifting. If α is less than 30°, conjugate sets of steeply dipping strike-slip faults form in rifts. Sinistral and dextral strike-slip faults trend subparallel and at large angles to the rift trend, respectively. If α is about 30°, strike-slip, oblique-slip and/or normal faults form in rifts. Faults with sinistral and dextral strike slip trend subparallel and at large angles to the rift trend, respectively. Normal faults strike about 30° counterclockwise from the rift trend. If α exceeds 30°, normal faults form in rifts. They have moderate dips and generally strike obliquely to the rift trend and to the relative displacement direction between opposite sides of the rift. If α equals 90°, the normal faults strike parallel to the rift trend and perpendicularly to the displacement direction.The modeling results apply to the Gulf of California and Gulf of Aden, two Tertiary continental rift systems produced by combined extension and shear. Our results explain the presence and trends of oblique-slip and strike-slip faults along the margins of the Gulf of California and the oblique trend (relative to the rift trend) of many normal faults along the margins of both the Gulf of California and the Gulf of Aden.     

On detecting long-term changes in atmospheric moisture

Long-term temperature changes are expected to give rise to changes in the water vapor content of the atmosphere, which in turn would accentuate the temperature change. It is thus important to monitor water vapor in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. This paper reviews existing data for such an endeavor and the prospects for improvement in monitoring.In general, radiosondes provide the longest record but the data are fraught with problems, some arising from the distribution of stations and some from data continuity questions arising from the use of different measuring devices over both time at one place and over space at any one time. Satellite records are now of limited duration but they will soon be useful in detecting changes. Satellite water vapor observations have their own limitations; there is no one system capable of measuring water vapor over all surfaces in all varieties of weather. Among the needs are careful analysis of existing records, the collection of metadata about the measuring systems, the development of a transfer standard radiosonde system, and the commitment to maintaining an observing system dedicated to describing any climate changes worldwide.