Crew variability in topographic surveys for monitoring wadeable streams: a case study from the Columbia River Basin

Digital elevation models (DEMs) derived from ground‐based topographic surveys have become ubiquitous in the field of fluvial geomorphology. Their wide application in spatially explicit analysis includes hydraulic modeling, habitat modeling, and morphological sediment budgeting. However, there is a lack of understanding regarding the repeatability and precision of DEMs derived from ground‐based surveys conducted by different, and inherently subjective, observers. This is of particular concern when we consider the proportion of studies and monitoring programs that are implemented across multiple sites and over time by different observers. We used a case study from the Columbia Habitat Monitoring Program (CHaMP), where seven field crews sampled the same six sites, to quantify the magnitude and effect of observer variability on DEMs interpolated from total station surveys. We quantified the degree to which DEM‐derived metrics and measured geomorphic change were repeatable. Across all six sites, we found an average elevation standard deviation of 0.05 m among surveys, and a mean total range of 0.16 m. A variance partition between site, crew, and unexplained errors for several topographically derived metrics showed that crew variability never accounted for > 1.5% of the total variability. We calculated minor geomorphic changes at one site following a relatively dry flow year between 2012 and 2011. Calculated changes were minimal (unthresholded net changes ±1–3 cm) with six crews detecting an indeterminate sediment budget and one crew detecting a minor net erosional sediment budget. While crew variability does influence the quality of topographic surveys, this study highlights that when consistent surveying methods are employed, the data sets are still sufficient to support derivation of topographic metrics and conduct basic geomorphic change detection. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Use of Nitrogen‐15‐Enriched Escherichia coli as a Bacterial Tracer in Karst Aquifers

Karst aquifers are susceptible to contamination by microorganisms, but relatively few studies have used bacteria as tracers. We demonstrate the utility of Escherichia coli enriched in the stable isotope nitrogen‐15 (¹⁵N) as a novel bacterial tracer. Nonpathogenic E. coli from two springs in central Kentucky were grown on ¹⁵N‐enriched media. Survival of E. coli and persistence of the isotopic signal were assessed in two sets of laboratory experiments conducted with sterilized spring water in dark microcosms at 14 °C. First, isotopically labeled bacteria survived for 130 d at concentrations within one log unit of the average initial value, and there was no significant difference in δ¹⁵N values from Day 1 to Day 130. Second, water samples with E. coli were inoculated with either of two different species of protozoa (Tetrahymena pyriformis or Colpoda steinii). During 7 d, δ¹⁵N values increased in T. pyriformis while bacterial populations decreased. In a field test, following a 2.1‐cm rainfall, ¹⁵N‐labeled E. coli, solutes (rhodamine WT dye and bromide), and latex microspheres were injected into a sinkhole approximately 530 m upgradient of a spring. Breakthrough of all tracers coincided, but microspheres were remobilized by subsequent storms, unlike other tracers. Enriched E. coli exhibited more tailing than solute tracers during the initial storm‐flow recession. These results indicate that ¹⁵N‐enriched E. coli is a viable tracer of bacterial transport in karst aquifers, although predation may attenuate the isotopic signal in systems that are not rapidly flushed.     

Quantification of nitrate storage in the vadose (unsaturated) zone: a missing component of terrestrial N budgets

National terrestrial nitrogen budgets for many developed countries have been calculated as part of the management of impacts of N on the environment, but these rarely represent the subsurface explicitly. Using estimates of vadose zone travel time and agricultural nitrate loading, we quantify, for the first time, the total mass of nitrate contained in the vadose zone of aquifers in England and Wales. This mass peaked in 2008 at 1400 kt N (800 to >1700 kt N from sensitivity analyses), which is approximately 2.5 to 6 times greater than saturated zone estimates for this period and indicates that the subsurface is an important store of reactive nitrogen. About 70% of the nitrate mass is estimated to be in the Chalk, with the remainder split between the Permo‐Triassic sandstones, the Jurassic Oolitic limestones and minor aquifers. Current controls on fertilizer application mean that the vadose zone is now a nitrate source, and in 2015 we estimate the net flux from the unsaturated zone to groundwater to be 72 kt N/a. The mass of nitrate in the vadose zone should be included in future terrestrial nitrogen budgets at national and global scales to improve ecosystem management. British Geological Survey © NERC 2015. Hydrological Processes © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A note on lithospheric bending calculations

Summary. This paper derives exact solutions to the equations of static plane strain by means of propagator matrices for homogeneous, gravitating and non- gravitating elastic media. These solutions are immediately verifiable and are flexible under a variety of boundary conditions. Propagator matrices are eminently suitable for computer encoding and, through their multiplication, are applicable to depth-dependent structures. Attention is focused upon the bending of floating plates which are loaded to simulate the deflection of oceanic lithosphere in the vicinity of trenches. By comparing responses computed with and without body forces, I find that gravity does not meaningfully change deflection profiles; however, it can influence important aspects of the internal stress state. Gravitational stresses are proportional to the gradient of the vertical deformation and amount to about 10 per cent of the bending stresses in these models. Propagators which include gravity are used to investigate the effect of regional horizontal stresses upon bending plates. I conclude that applied compressive forces can transport the neutral surface through 10–20 km of depth without significantly deforming the plate profile or increasing the maximum internal stress by more than 30 percent. These calculations support the contention that variable compressive stresses resulting from interplate coupling could account for observed regional differences in neutral surface height. For elastic-plastic material, the fundamental equations of motion become non-linear; however, there appears to be no a priori objection to their linearization. I speculate that the propagator formalism, when applied in an iterative approach, could be a powerful method for computing the deformation of such media.     

Hydraulic characteristics of a small Coastal Plain stream of the southeastern United States: effects of hydrology and season

Various physical and biological properties affect solute transport patterns in streams. We measured hydraulic characteristics of Payne Creek, a low‐gradient upper Coastal Plain stream, using tracer experiments and parameter estimation with OTIS‐P (one‐dimensional transport with inflow and storage with parameter optimization). The primary objective of this study was to estimate the effects of varying discharge, season, and litter accumulation on hydraulic parameters. Channel area A ranged from 0·081 to 0·371 m² and transient storage area A_s ranged from 0·027 to 0·111 m². Dispersion D ranged from 1·5 to 11·1 m² min⁻¹ and exchange coefficient α ranged from 0·009 to 0·038 min⁻¹. Channel area and dispersion were positively correlated to discharge Q, whereas storage area and exchange coefficient were not. Relative storage size A_s/A ranged from 0·17 to 0·59, and was higher during fall than other seasons under a similar Q. The fraction of median travel time due to transient storage ranged from 8·8 to 34·5% and was significantly correlated with Q through a negative power function. Both metrics indicated that transient storage was a significant component affecting solute transport in Payne Creek, especially during the fall. Comparison between the measured channel area A_c and A suggested that surface storage was dominant in Payne Creek. During fall, accumulation of leaf litter resulted in larger A and A_s and lower velocity and D than during other seasons with similar discharge. Seasonal changes in discharge and organic matter accumulation, and dynamic channel morphology affected the magnitude of transient storage and overall hydraulic characteristics of Payne Creek. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Quantitative Assessment of the Human and Economic Hazard from Impact-generated Tsunami

In this article, we assess the human and economic hazard posed by tsunami waves generated from impacts of sub-2 km diameter asteroids. Annually, on average, 182(+197/−123) people will be affected by impact-induced waves with a corresponding infrastructure loss of $18(+20/−12)M/y. Half of the tsunami hazard stems from impactors with diameters less than 300 m. One near Earth asteroid will survive atmospheric transit and strike somewhere into Earth’s oceans every 5880 years, on average. In the mean generic scenario, the tsunami from the impact affects 1.1 million people and destroys $110B of infrastructure.     

Diagenesis in porosity evolution of opening-mode fractures, Middle Triassic to Lower Jurassic La Boca Formation, NE Mexico

Opening-mode fractures (joints) in Middle Triassic to Lower Jurassic La Boca Formation sandstones, northeastern Mexico, have patterns of fracture porosity, mineral-fill structures, and size distributions not previously described from outcrop. Patterns match those found in cores from many basins. We used aperture measurements along lines of observation (scanlines), fracture-trace maps, petrography, high-resolution scanning-electron-microscope-(SEM)-based cathodoluminescence, and fluid inclusions to characterize fracture populations. Open fractures are lined by quartz that precipitated while fractures were opening, whereas sealed fractures additionally contain calcite deposited after fractures ceased opening. Large fractures and arrays of contemporaneous microfractures have consistent power-law aperture-size scaling over approximately three orders of magnitude. Our results imply that open fractures and fracture sizes depend on diagenetic state. The interplay of fracture mechanics and diagenetic history is a determinant on effective porosity within fractures and, thus, open fracture persistence, connectivity, and fluid flow.     

Some observations on diamondiferous bedrock gully trapsites on Late Cainozoic, marine-cut platforms of the Sperrgebiet, Namibia

Namibia's southwestern coast, the Sperrgebiet, hosts one of the world's largest gem diamond placer deposits consisting of fluvial, marine and desert deflation/aeolian placer types. To date, the richest onshore placer discovered in the Sperrgebiet comprises several, Plio-Pleistocene to Holocene, littoral marine packages distributed northwards from the Orange River mouth for some 120 km to Chameis Bay. In this zone, known as Mining Area No. 1 (MA1), these Quaternary marine deposits are floored predominantly by siliciclastic rocks of the Late Proterozoic Gariep Belt that have been bevelled into a number of marine-cut platforms during the different Quaternary high sea level stands (notably, at + 30 m, + 8 m, + 4 m and + 2 m). In many places, these bedrock platforms are extensively gullied and potholed, forming abundant fixed trapsites that promote diamond concentration in the Late Cainozoic littoral sediments. Some observations on the distribution, orientation and incision of bedrock gullies in MA1 are presented here.Three principal bedrock gully types, all of which constitute good diamond trapsites, have been identified in the bedrock footwall between the Orange River mouth northwards to Chameis Bay, a distance of some 120 km: (i) swash-parallel gullies in the southern, proximal sector where the bedrock s₂ dips 45°W and the abrasive gravels are most abundant, thus overriding lithological and structural controls in the footwall; (ii) strike-parallel gullies in the central reach where the bedrock s₂ dips between 80° and 85°W and the abrasive bedload is reduced, resistant lithological units promote the formation of such features along the orientation of the metsediments; and (iii) joint gullies in the northern, distal portion where the bedrock s₂ dips 45–60° to the E and coarse abrasive bedload is virtually absent, the structural pattern in the bedrock is exploited by marine erosion.In these Late Cainozoic placers, diamond concentration is further linked to the depth of the gullies incised into the marine-cut platforms. Maximum incision is noted on the seaward margins of the marine-cut platforms where high-energy littoral processes, acting in a micro-tidal range of ca. 1.8 m under strong prevailing southerly wind and South Atlantic derived southwesterly swell regimes, promote marine erosion and deep gully formation.Therefore, the most favourable diamondiferous trapsites in the Late Cainozoic marine packages of the southwestern Sperrgebiet are those developed in deep bedrock gullies of either swash-parallel, strike-parallel or joint pattern origin on the seaward margins of marine-cut platforms that represent discrete high sea level stands during the Quaternary.