The Null method applied to GNSS three-carrier phase ambiguity resolution

The Null method is a technique to fix the ambiguity in L1 phase measurements of the global positioning system (GPS). The method is adapted to new global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) which offer phase measurements at three frequencies. In order to validate the efficiency of the adapted method, results obtained using a software simulator and an emulator are presented. The results are then compared to those obtained with the least-squares ambiguity decorrelation adjustment (LAMBDA) method. Good performance of the Null method in new GNSS systems is shown.Acknowledgments. The measurements used were provided by the European Space Agency, and were generated by Spectra Precision Terrasat under contract No. 12.406/77/NL/DS. The authors thank Maria Belmontes Rivas for her comments and the reviewers for their suggestions.     

Effects of fluid infiltration on wollastonite genesis at the Mérida contact-metamorphic deposits, SW Spain

Summary The Mérida wollastonite deposits (SW Spain) occur in the inner part of a contact-metamorphic aureole developed on impure carbonate rocks of Lower Cambrian age, by the intrusion of a late Hercynian granite. Contact metamorphism associated with the granite emplacement did not only cause an important thermic anomaly but also triggered a complex fluid-rock interaction driven by infiltration of externally-derived fluids. Petrographic and stable isotope data suggest that the aureole was infiltrated by large amounts of aqueous fluids, emanating from the nearby granite, through lithological contacts. As a result of fluid infiltration, an extensive dilution of the CO₂-rich fluid phase evolved by prograde devolatilization reactions took place, thus providing an environment suitable for wollastonite formation.Nearly pure wollastonite bands resulted from chert interlayered in limestone by local exchange between CaO and SiO₂ across bimetasomatic rims, in the presence of virtually pure water showing a magmatic-dominated isotope signature (¹⁸O values as low as 11.8 are recorded for wollastonites adjacent to the granite contact). Distribution and modal abundance of wollastonite provide insights for determining the fluid flow paths and the extent of infiltration. Fluid circulation was dominantly parallel to bedding and clearly focused along marble-metachert boundaries, whi-ch acted as channelways for migration of fluids in the direction of decreasing temperature. Conditions of wollastonite formation have been estimated as follows: P=570-700 bars; T = 550-600°C; and X_{CO 2} 0.05.

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Der Effekt von Fluidinfiltration auf die Genese von Wollastonit in den kontaktmetamorphen Lagerstätten von Mérida, SW Spanien

Zusammenfassung Die Woliastonitlagerstätten von Mérida (SW Spanien) treten im Innenteil einer kontaktmetamorphen Aureole, die sich durch die Intrusion späthercynischer Granite in unreine unterkambrische Karbonatgesteine bildete, auf. Die die Granitplatznahme begleitende Kontaktmetamorphose verursachte nicht nur eine bedeutende thermische Anomalie, sondern löste, kontrolliert durch die Infiltration externer Fluide, auch komplexe Fluid-Gesteinsinteraktion aus. Peterographische und stabile Isotopendaten weisen darauf hin, daß in die Aureole große Mengen an wäßrigen Lösungen, die aus dem nahegelegenen Granit abzuleiten sind, vor allem entlang lithologischer Grenzen infiltrierten. Als Folge der Fluidinfiltration kam es zu einer starken Verdünnung des durch prograde Devolatilisationsreaktionen entstandenen CO₂-reichen Fluids und zur Bildung von Wollastonit.Nahezu reine Wollastonitbänder entstanden aus den dem Kalk zwischengelagertem Chert durch lokalen CaO- und SiO₂-Austausch über bimetasomatische Ränder und zwar in Gegenwart eines offenbar reinen wäßrigen Fluids mit rnagmatisch-dominierter Isotopensignatur (¹⁸O Werte bis 11.8 sind für Wollastonite nahe des Granitkontaktes nachgewiesen). Die Verteilung und die Modalgehalte von Wollastonit erlauben Einblicke in die Bestimmung der Fluidpfade und das Ausmaß der Infiltration. Die Fluidzirkulation erfolgte hauptsächlich parallel zur Schichtung und ist auf die Marmor-Metachert-Grenzen fokussiert, die als Zufuhrkanäle für die Migration der Fluide in Richtung fallender Temperatur agierten. Die Bedingungen der Wollastonitbildung werden folgendermaßen abgeschätzt: P = 570-700 bar; T=550-600°C; X_{CO 2 2}0.05.

     

Geochemical patterns of a sheared fluorite vein, Parzan, Spanish Central Pyrenees

The formation of Parzán fluorite-lead «extension-type» vein (Spanish Central Pyrenees) is related to the post-Hercynian hydrothermal activity widespread not only in the Pyrenees but in Western Europe as well. The lode was later strongly deformed during the Alpine orogeny with textural modifications and destruction of primary fluid inclusions. In order to determine if geochemical signatures of the vein were disturbed during Alpine deformation, post-ore fluid inclusions and quartz oxygen-isotopes have been addressed. Microthermometry and X-ray microanalysis of frozen inclusions confirm the Na-Ca-Cl character of post-ore fluid circulations and indicate that they were originally derived from a single source: Triassic connate waters. Oxygen isotope data on quartz formed during deformation along with trace element geochemistry suggest that the geochemical signatures of the vein (mainly REE and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) were apparently not reset during deformation. The REE content of fluorites is very high (up to 0.12%); the chondrite normalized REE patterns display a continuous decrease from La to Lu. Sulphur isotope data for the Parzán vein is outside the typical “deep seated” range, suggesting dominantly crustal sources of sulphur for sulphides, while formation waters may be proposed for barite. Parzán fluorites have the most radiogenic Sr values of all the investigated fluorite deposits in Central Pyrenees. They scatter in the range of both the igneous rocks and the Cambrian-Ordovician and Triassic detrital sequences of the Parzán area. If REE contents and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios reflect the primary stage of vein filling as suggested by the good correlation between both geochemical signatures, the linear array between ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and 1/ΣREE is suggestive of a mixing process. The δ³⁴S, δ¹⁸O and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr parameters in barite, which postdates the fluorite, also provide strong evidence that barite deposition is a result of fluid mixing. Such an interpretation is in line with present-day ideas for the genesis of many of the F-Ba-Pb-Zn vein deposits in the Hercynian belt of Iberia.     

On long-period polar motion

 Five separate polar motion series are examined in order to understand what portion of their variations at periods exceeding several years represents true polar motion. The data since the development of space-geodetic techniques (by themselves insufficient for study of long-period motion), and a variety of historical astrometric data sets, allow the following tentative conclusions: retrograde long-period polar motion below about −0.2 cpy (cycles per year) in pre-space-geodetic data (pre-1976) is dominantly noise. For 1976–1992, there is poor agreement between space-geodetic and astrometric series over the range −0.2 to +0.2 cpy, demonstrating that classical astrometry lacked the precision to monitor polar motion in this frequency range. It is concluded that all the pre-1976 astrometric polar motion data are likely to be dominated by noise at periods exceeding about 10 years. The exception to this is possibly a linear trend found in some astrometric and space geodetic series. At frequencies above prograde +0.2 cpy (periods shorter than about 5 years), historical astrometric data may be of sufficient quality for comparisons with geophysical excitation time series. Even in the era of space geodesy, significant differences are found in long-period variations in published polar motion time series. Received: 27 March 2001 / Accepted: 15 October 2001     

Groundwater chemical pollution risk: assessment through a soil attenuation index

Aquifer vulnerability is frequently estimated through methodologies that don’t consider most physical and chemical soil parameters. A soil attenuation index is proposed to estimate groundwater chemical pollution risk, that takes into account organic carbon content, pH, cation exchange capacity, clay content, phreatic depth and landscape position. The attenuation index is constructed by a methodology similar to that developed for water quality index. P, Mn and Zn concentrations in groundwater from selected places were used to validate the proposed index.     

Taphonomy in palaeoecological interpretations

The taphonomic history of single fossils or of fossil assemblages provides evidence additional to that given by taxonomic identification. Too often taphonomy is viewed as destructive processes biasing evidence of past life or restricting taxonomic diversity in the reconstruction of palaeoecology, but in reality it sheds light on circumstances of life and preservation of fossil organisms. Because recorded modifications of fossils are due to biotic or abiotic agents that may not be evident in a studied sequence, taphonomic modifications should be seen as providing a more dynamic view of the past rather than as destructive processes.     

Identification of potential subsidence related to pumping in the Almería basin (SE Spain)

Ground subsidence of detrital deposits in the Almería basin (SE Spain) was studied using the remote sensing technique of Differential Interferometry SAR (DInSAR). This basin is one of the most arid in Europe, receiving an average rainfall of 250 mm per year. Over the last 60 years the region has experienced an enormous agricultural and urban expansion, whose water demand has been largely supplied from groundwater, leading to the current situation of overexploitation of water resources. This paper outlines the likely relationship between groundwater abstraction and subsidence. To this end, 34 ERS and Envisat images, taken between 2003 and 2009, were analysed to estimate ground surface deformations, and hence, compared with water table variations measured in a number of piezometers in the basin. The analysis shows a clear parallelism between the variations in piezometric level and deformation of the ground surface. In addition, the zones of greatest subsidence coincide with those areas where groundwater abstractions are concentrated. Subsidence over the examined period varies from 10 to 30 mm, with extreme values as high as 50 mm, which translates to a rate of between 1·7 and 5 mm/year, reaching maximum rates of 8 mm/year at some points. Given such subsidence rates, damage to urban infrastructures are, for the moment, incipient. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Numerical modelling of dynamic consolidation on granular soils

The application of Pastor–Zienkiewicz constitutive model for sands to dynamic consolidation problems is presented in this paper. This model is implemented in a coupled code formulated in terms of displacements for both solid and fluid phases (u?w formulation), which is firstly compared with u?p_w formulation for some simple examples. Its range of validity, previously established for elastic problems and harmonic loading, is explored. Once the suitability of the u?w formulation has been ascertained for this kind of dynamic problems in soils, one‐ and two‐dimensional (plane strain) dynamic consolidation numerical examples are provided, aiming to give some light into the physics of this ground improvement technique. A ‘wave of dryness’, observed at the soil surface during the impact in field cases, is numerically reproduced and justified. Some hints on the influence of the loading zone size are also given. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.