Plio-Pleistocene basanitic and melilititic series of the Bohemian Massif: K-Ar ages,major/trace element and Sr–Nd isotopic data

The Plio-Pleistocene volcanic rocks of the Bohemian Massif comprise a compositional spectrum involving two series: an older basanitic series (6.0–0.8 Ma) and a younger, melilititic series (1.0–0.26 Ma). The former consists of relatively undifferentiated basaltic rocks, slightly silica-undersaturated, with Mg# ranging from 62 to almost primitive mantle-type values of 74. The major and trace element characteristics correspond to those of primitive intra-plate alkaline volcanic rocks from a common sub-lithospheric mantle source (European Asthenospheric Reservoir – EAR) including positive Nb, and negative K and Pb anomalies. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of 0.7032–0.7034 and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd of 0.51285–0.51288 indicate a moderately depleted mantle source as for other mafic rocks of the central European volcanic province with signs of HIMU-like characteristics commonly attributed to recycling of subducted oceanic crust in the upper mantle during the Variscan orogeny. The melilititic series is characterized by higher degrees of silica-undersaturation, and high Mg# of 68–72 values, compatible with primitive-mantle-derived compositions. The high OIB-like Ce/Pb (19–47) and Nb/U (32–53) ratios indicate that assimilation of crustal material was negligible. In both series, concentrations of incompatible elements are mildly elevated and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios (0.7034–0.7036) and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios (0.51285–0.51288) overlap. Variations in incompatible element concentrations and isotopic compositions in the basanitic series and melilititic series can be explained by a lower degree of mantle melting for the latter with preferential melting of enriched mantle domains. The Sr and Nd isotopic compositions of both rock series are similar to those of the EAR. Minor differences in geochemical characteristics between the two series may be attributed to: (i) to different settings with respect to crust and lithospheric mantle conditions in (a) Western Bohemia (WB) and (b) Northeastern Bohemia (NEB) and the Northern Moravia and Silesia (NMS) areas, (ii) a modally metasomatized mantle lithosphere in WB in contrast to cryptically metasomatized domains in the NEB and NMS, (iii) different degrees of partial melting with very low degrees in WB but higher degrees in NEB and NMS. The geochemical and isotopic similarity between the Plio-Pleistocene volcanic rocks and those of the late Cretaceous and Cenozoic (79–6 Ma) suggests that their magmas came from compositionally similar mantle sources, that underwent low degrees of melting over an interval of ∼80 Ma. The Oligocene to Miocene basanitic series that accompanied the Plio-Pleistoicene basanitic series in the NMS region indicate that they shared a common mantle source. There is no geochemical evidence for thermal erosion of the lithospheric mantle or significant changes in mantle compositions within the time of a weak thermal perturbation in the asthenospheric mantle. These perturbations were caused by a dispersed mantle plume or passively upwelling asthenosphere in zones of lithospheric thinning.     

The petrology of the Ditrau alkaline complex, Eastern Carpathians

Summary ?The Ditrau complex in eastern Transsylvania, Romania is a large (ca. 18 km diameter) Mesozoic alkaline igneous complex generated in an extensional environment associated with a rifted continental margin. It comprises an eccentric arcuate suite of intrusions in which there was a generalised migration of focus from west to east. Whereas most of the complex consists of salic rocks (syenites, nepheline syenites and alkali granites) a spectrum of intermediate rock types (monzonites, monzodiorites and alkali diorites) grades to alkali gabbros. Isolated masses of ultramafic rocks may represent autoliths derived from early cumulates. The earliest components appear to be the ultramafic, gabbroic and dioritic rocks of the north-west whereas the large area of nepheline syenites in the east of the complex represents the youngest large-scale intrusive event. An interval of dyke intrusion and widespread hydrothermal alteration marked the end of activity. Rocks of contrasted composition commonly show intricate and complex geometric relationships. Those between mafic (especially alkali gabbroic and dioritic) facies and salic (syenite and quartz syenite) facies display pillowy forms suggesting synchronous emplacement of mafic and salic magmas with the former intruded into, and chilled against, the latter. Mixing, mingling and hybridisation in these pillowed associations has been widespread. Olivine is confined to some of the ultramafic rocks. The basic rocks contain diopsidic pyroxene and amphibole ranging from kaersutite through ferroan pargasite to hastingsite although edenitic and actinolitic varieties occur. Titanite is ubiquitous and is a major component in some facies of the basic rocks. The syenites consist of sodic plagioclase, alkali feldspar and hastingsite whereas the nepheline syenites comprise alkali feldspar, nepheline and aegirine-augite with accessory cancrinite, scapolite and sodalite. The complex is deduced to have been generated from primitive basanitic magmas, formed as small-fraction asthenospheric melts, with progressive evolution through to phonolitic residues. Fractional crystallisation is inferred to have involved olivine and spinel in the early stages, followed by the incoming of clinopyroxene and amphibole (with loss of olivine in increasingly hydrous residual melts). A generalised increase in Nb/Ta from basic to nepheline syenite compositions is ascribed to titanite fractionation. The divergence towards silica oversaturated products is attributed to crustal assimilation and concomitant fractional crystallisation of the basic magmas at a relatively early stage in the development of the complex. An overall rise in δ¹⁸O with increasing SiO₂ supports this conclusion. Evidence from the broad metamorphic aureole around the complex, the importance of amphiboles and extensive late-stage alteration of many of the rocks (with formation of e.g. scapolite, sodalite and cancrinite), suggests that the Ditrau magmas were notably volatile-rich. Factors responsible for the upwardly concave (chondrite-normalised) REE patterns exhibited by the salic rocks may include fractionation of minerals (kaersuite, titanite, apatite) preferentially removing MREE, accumulation of HREE-rich phases (zircon) and interaction with late-stage fluids enriched in HREE. The intrusive sequence and the inter-relationships of the basic and salic rocks suggest that stratified magma bodies may have been generated, with salic melts overlying denser basaltic melts. Mixing is inferred to have taken place during subsequent emplacement.

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Zusammenfassung ?Petrologie des Alkali-Komplexes von Ditrau in den Ost-Karpaten Der Ditrau-Komplex im ?stlichen Transsylvanien, Rum?nien, ist ein gro?er (ca. 18 km Durchmesser) mesozoischer Alkali-Komplex, der in einem extensionalen Umfeld im Zusammenhang mit dem Aufbrechen eines Kontinentalrandes entstanden ist. Es liegt eine bogenf?rmige, exzentrische Gruppe von Intrusionen vor, innerhalb derer der Fokus von West nach Ost gewandert ist. W?hrend der Gro?teil des Komplexes aus salischen Gesteinen (Syeniten, Nephelin-Syeniten und Alkali Graniten) besteht, liegen auch intermedi?re Gesteine (Monzonite, Monzodiorite und Alkali Diorite) vor, die in Alkaligabbros übergehen. Isolierte Massen von ultramafischen Gesteinen k?nnten Autolithe, die aus frühen Kumulaten abstammen, darstellen. Die ?ltesten Komponenten scheinen die ultramafischen, gabbroischen und dioritischen Gesteine des Nordwestens zu sein, w?hrend das gro?e Gebiet von Nephelin-Syeniten im Osten des Komplexes das jüngste Intrusionsstadium darstellt. Ein Intervall mit Gang-Intrusion und verbreiteter hydrothermaler Umwandlung markiert das Ende dieser Aktivit?t. Gesteine von gegens?tzlicher Zusammensetzung zeigen h?ufig komplizierte geometrische Beziehungen. Diejenigen zwischen mafischen (besondern alkaligabbroischen und dioritischen) Typen und salischen (Syeniten und Quarz-Syeniten) zeigen polsterartige Formen, die auf m?glicherweise gleichzeitige Platznahme von mafischen und salischen Magmen hinweisen; dabei dürften die ersteren die letzteren intrudiert haben. Mischung, Mingling und Hybridisation ist in diesen polsterf?rmigen Assoziationen weit verbreitet. Olivin ist auf einige der ultramafischen Gesteine beschr?nkt. Die basischen Gesteine enthalten diopsidischen Pyroxen und Amphibole, die von Kaersutit über “ferroan” Pargasit zu Hastingsit übergehen, obwohl auch edenitische und aktinolitische Variet?ten vorkommen. Titanit ist weit verbreitet und eine Hauptkomponente in einigen Typen der basischen Gesteine. Die Syenite bestehen aus sodischem Plagioklas, Alkali-Feldspat und Hastingsit, w?hrend Nephelin-Syenite, Alkali-Feldspat, Nephelin und Aeginin-Augit mit akzessorischem Cancrinit, Skapolith und Sodalit umfassen. Der Ditrau-Komplex dürfte aus primitiven basanitischen Magmen entstanden sein, die sich als “small-fraction” asthenosph?rischer Schmelzen bildeten, mit progressiver Evolution bis hin zu phonolitischen Residuen. Fraktionierte Kristallisation dürfte Olivin und Spinell in den Frühstadien betroffen haben, gefolgt vom Auftreten des Klinopyroxen und Amphibol (wobei Olivin in den zunehmend wasserreichen Restschmelzen verlorengeht). Eine allgemeine Zunahme in Nb/Ta von basischen zu nephelinsyenitischen Zusammensetzungen wird auf Titanit-Fraktionierung zurückgeführt. Die Entwicklung in Richtung Silika-übers?ttigter Produkte geht auf krustale Assimilation und fraktionelle Kristallisation des basischen Magmas in einem relativ frühen Stadium der Entwicklung des Komplexes zurück. Ein allgemeiner Anstieg in δ¹⁸O mit zunehmendem SiO₂ unterstützt diese Schlu?folgerung. Daten aus der breiten metamorphen Aureole des Komplexes, die Bedeutung der Amphibole und extensive Alteration im Sp?tstadium der Entwicklung vieler Gesteine (mit Bildung von Skapolith, Soldalit und Cancrinit) weist darauf hin, dass die Ditrau-Magmen sehr reich an volatilen Phasen waren. Die nach oben zu konkaven (Chondrit-normalisierten) SEE-Verteilungsmuster in den salischen Gesteinen dürften auf Mineralfraktionierung (Kaersuit, Titanit, Apatit) die vorzugsweise MSEE entfernt hat, Ansammlung von HSEE-reichen Phasen (Zirkon) und Wechselwirkungen mit sp?ten Fluiden, die an HSEE angereichert waren, zurückgehen. Die intrusive Abfolge und die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen den basischen und salischen Gesteinen legt nahe, dass geschichtete Magmenk?rper entstanden sind, wobei salische Schmelzen die dichteren basaltischen Schmelzen überlagert haben. W?hrend der darauf folgenden Platznahme dürfte Magmamixing stattgefunden haben.

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Received October 20, 1998;/revised version accepted July 16, 1999     

Part-time farming: The Cyprus case

Part-time farming is a feature and a consequence of economic change which involves labour movement out of agriculture. It helps to sustain the rural sector by reducing the rate of outmigration. This paper reports on a pilot survey of part-time farmers in the S, Government-controlled part of Cyprus. The economy is growing rapidly with agriculture declining in relative importance although still contributing nearly half the value of exports. Over 50 % of farmers are part-time, meaning in this case they have another occupation. In general, farming is a minor activity and time spent in off-farm work is often increasing to maintain income levels. However the majority of the sample are keen to maintain their farming activity.In the Cyprus study part-time farmers appear slightly younger and operate smaller units than average; they rent in less land and irrigate a smaller area. Considerable differences are found between the four main agricultural zones; mountain, vines, dryland and coastal. At one extreme, exemplified by the coastal zone, commercial part-time farming provides a high standard of living on farms which are somewhat smaller than average. Off-farm work is available locally and complements farm work. Farmers' confidence in long-term prospects is reflected in their willingness (and ability) to invest on the farm and in their low levels of family, migration. At the other extreme, found in the depressed areas of the mountain zone, overt government policies may be required to ensure the continued existence of farming. The combined income of on and off farm work may be inadequate and farmers often have to borrow to meet basic household needs. These farmers travel long distances to find work and may have more than one off-farm occupation. Much of the burden of farm work falls on other family members. Although farmers would prefer to spend more time in agriculture they have limited confidence in its future prospects and recognize the possible necessity of outmigration.     

Rare-earth distribution in the Tugtutôq younger giant dyke complex: evidence bearing on alkaline magma genesis in south Greenland

Rare-earth element data for 14 gabbro and syenogabbro samples from the Tugtutôq younger giant dyke complex (YGDC) and for three anorthosite inclusions lend support to other geochemical and experimental evidence that the anorthosites represent early fractionates that formed at depth from a magma similar to (but not identical with) the liquid which formed the giant dykes themselves. All samples are light REE enriched and absolute REE concentrations increase with increasing degree of differentiation in both chilled marginal samples and cumulates. Strong positive Eu anomalies in early cumulates decrease with advancing fractionation and there may even be negative Eu anomalies in the most differentiated cumulates. Lack of significant Eu anomalies in the chilled samples confirms that large quantities of anorthosite (large positive Eu anomalies) could not have formed directly from the YGDC magma. A comparison with REE distributions in the nearby, younger Ilimaussaq alkaline complex (from data reported by Gerasimovskiy & Balashov (1968) shows that the late fractionates of the YGDC and the early, augite syenite, phase of Ilimaussaq have very similar REE patterns. The later agpaites of Ilimaussaq, however, are greatly enriched in REEs and show strong negative Eu anomalies; this suggests that substantial feldspar fractionation took place at depth before the emplacement of the agpaites, producing rock suites petrologically similar to those exposed in the YDGC.     

Sub-volcanic crystallization at Sete Cidades volcano, São Miguel, Azores, inferred from mafic and ultramafic plutonic nodules

Summary Suites of coarse-grained clasts (plutonic nodules) within the scoria of two separate mafic post-caldera parasitic vents, on Sete Cidades volcano, are described. These involve dunites, wehrlites, olivine clinopyroxenites, clinopyroxenites and olivine gabbros in the Eguas ankaramitic cone and pyroxene hornblendites, kaersutite gabbros and diorites in the Pico das Camarinhas basaltic-hawaiitic cone. The plutonic nodules are inferred to be cumulates, crystallised within the crust from magmas co-genetic with the post-caldera mafic lavas erupted on the flanks of Sete Cidades.The dunites, wehrlites, pyroxenites and olivine gabbros have assemblages and mineral composition consistent with growth as early, high-temperature cumulates, whereas the pyroxene hornblendites, kaersutite gabbros and diorites represent lower temperature products. However, whereas the kaersutite gabbros were not wholly crystallised at the time of their disruption and contain up to 4% intercumulus trachytic and/or tephriphonolitic glass, the pyroxene hornblendites and the diorites were fully crystallised. Compositions of the intercumulus glasses are similar to those of postcaldera trachytic pumices erupted on Sete Cidades.Although the two suites of plutonic clasts can be considered as complementary, they probably derive from different intrusions. We envisage a lensoid (laccolithic) intrusion at very shallow depth as the source for the pyroxene hornblendite - kaersutite gabbro -diorite suite whereas the dunite - wehrlite - olivine clinopyroxenite - clinopyroxenite -olivine gabbro nodules probably originate from intrusive bodies at greater depth.

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Sub-vulkanische Kristallisation am Sete Cidades Vulkan, São Miguel, Azoren: Die Bedeutung mafischer und ultramafischer plutonischer Einschlüsse

Zusammenfassung Wir beschreiben Gruppen von grobkörnigen Klasten (Plutonic nodules) in der Scoria von zwei separaten mafischen post-caldera parasitischen Kratern am Sete Cidades Vulkan: Diese umfassen Dunite, Wehrlite, Olivin-Klinopyroxenite und Olivin-Gabbros in dem ankaramitischen Kegel von Eguas. In den basaltisch-hawaiitischen Kegeln von Pico das Camarinhas, kommen Pyroxen-Hornblendite, Kaersutit-Gabbros und Diorite vor. Wir nehmen an, daß die plutonischen nodules Kumulate repräsentieren, die in der Kruste aus Magmen kristallisierten, die mit den post-caldera mafischen Laven, die an den Flanken von Sete Cidades ausgetreten sind kogenetisch sind.Die Dunite, Wehrlite, Pyroxenite und Olivin-Gabbros führen Paragenesen und Mineral-Zusammensetzungen, die im Einklang mit einer Entwicklung als frühe Hoch Temperatur-Kumulate sind. Hingegen stellen die Pyroxen-Hornblendite, Kaersutit-Gabbros und Diorite niedriger temperierte Produkte dar. Die Kaersutit-Gabbros waren zur Zeit /:ihrer Umlagerung noch nicht ganz auskristallisiert und führen bis zu 4% intercumulus trachytisches oder tephriphonolitisches Glas, die Pyroxenhornblendite und die Diorite sind jedoch ganz kristallisiert. Die Zusammensetzungen der Interkumulusgläser sind denen von post-caldera trachytischen Bimssteinen von Sete Cidades ähnlich.Obwohl die zwei Gruppen plutonischer Klasten als komplementär betrachtet werden können, stammen sie wahrscheinlich von verschiedenen Intrusionen. Es dürfte sich um eine lensoide (lakkolithische) Intrusion in geringer Tiefe als Quelle für die Pyroxenhomblendit-Kärsutitgabbro-Diorit-Abfolge handeln, während die Gruppe der Dunite, Wehrlite, Olivinklinopyroxenite und Olivingabbro-Nodules wahrscheinlich aus größerer Tiefe stammt.

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With 9 Figures     

Peralkaline syenite autoliths from Kilombe volcano, Kenya Rift Valley: Evidence for subvolcanic interaction with carbonatitic fluids

Mineral chemistry, textures and geochemistry of syenite autoliths from Kilombe volcano indicate that they crystallized in the upper parts of a magma chamber from peralkaline trachytic magmas that compositionally straddle the alkali feldspar join in the “residuum system” (ne = 0–1.03; qz = 0–0.77). Mineral reaction and/or overgrowth processes were responsible for the replacement of (i) Mg–hedenbergite by aegirine–augite, Ca–aegirine and/or aegirine, (ii) fayalite by amphiboles, and (iii) magnetite by aenigmatite. Ti–magnetite in silica-saturated syenites generally shows ilmenite exsolution, partly promoted by circulating fluids.

By contrast, the Fe–Ti oxides in the silica-undersaturated (sodalite-bearing) syenites show no signs of deuteric alteration. These syenites were ejected shortly after completion of crystallization. Ilmenite–magnetite equilibria indicate fO₂ between − 19.5 and − 23.1 log units (T 679–578 °C), slightly below the FMQ buffer. The subsequent crystallization of aenigmatite and Na-rich pyroxenes suggests an increase in the oxidation state of the late-magmatic liquids and implies the influence of post-magmatic fluids.

Irrespective of silica saturation, the syenites can be divided into (1) “normal” syenites, characterized by Ce/Ce ratios between 0.83 and 0.99 and (2) Ce-anomalous syenites, showing distinct negative Ce-anomalies (Ce/Ce 0.77–0.24). “Normal” silica-saturated syenites evolved towards pantelleritic trachyte. The Ce-anomalous syenites are relatively depleted in Zr, Hf, Th, Nb and Ta but, with the exception of Ce, are significantly enriched in REE.

The silica-saturated syenites contain REE–fluorcarbonates (synchysite-bastnaesite series) with negative Ce-anomalies (Ce/Ce 0.4–0.8, mean 0.6), corroded monazite group minerals with LREE-rich patches, and hydrated, Fe- and P-rich phyllosilicates. Each of these is inferred to be of non-magmatic origin. Fractures in feldspars and pyroxenes contain Pb-, REE- and Mn-rich cryptocrystalline or amorphous material. The monazite minerals are characterized by the most prominent negative Ce-anomalies (Ce/Ce_mean = 0.5), and in the most altered and Ca-rich areas (depleted in REE), Ce/Ce is less than 0.2.

It is inferred that carbonatitic fluids rich in F, Na and lanthanides but depleted in Ce by fractional crystallization of cerian pyrochlore, percolated into the subvolcanic system and interacted with the syenites at the thermal boundary layers of the magma chamber, during and shortly after their crystallization.

Chevkinite–(Ce), pyrochlore, monazite and synchysite-bastnaesite, occurring as accessory minerals, have been found for the first time at Kilombe together with eudialyte, nacareniobsite–(Ce) and thorite. These latter represent new mineral occurrences in Kenya.     

Early volcanic rocks of réunion and their tectonic significance

A great sequence of hydrothermally altered and tectonically disturbed lavas and breccias is exposed in the erosional cirques of Piton des Neiges volcano, Réunion. These rocks are cut by intense swarms of minor intrusives and are overlain by a carapace of younger lavas which date back at least 2 m.y. The older lavas and breccias are believed to have been formed by submarine eruption of basalt magma during the pre-emergent growth stages of the volcano. It is suggested that their subsequent elevation to 2000 m. above sealevel is due to the thrusting of oceanic crust from the north-east, associated with movements along NE-SW fractures in the western Indian Ocean floor.     

Peridotitic and gabbroic rocks associated with the shield-forming lavas of réunion

The peridotitic and gabbroic rocks described occur a) as a tectonically emplaced layered body in Piton des Neiges volcano, b) as blocks in basaltic agglomerate, Piton des Neiges, and c) as nodular inclusions in lavas of both Piton des Neiges and Piton de la Fournaise volcanoes. All are associated with the olivine basalts of the early shield-forming growth stages and not later alkaline lavas, thereby contrasting with the Hawaiian situation. Rock-types include dunite, clinopyroxenite, wehrlite, feldspathic wehrlite, olivine eucrite, allivalite, (bytownite) anorthosite and gabbro. The peridotites and most of the gabbroic rocks are inferred to be cumulates formed in floored magma chambers occurring at depths from 30 km upwards. The inclusion suite is probably derived from repetitive layered units consisting predominantly of ol + sp cumulates with sporadic development of ol + cpx±sp and ol + cpx + plag cumulate horizons.     

The basalts of Réunion Island,Indian Ocean

Réunion consists of two shield volcanoes, Piton des Neiges (3069 m) and Piton de la Fournaise (2631 m). The former is extinct and deeply eroded, so that its internal structure is clearly displayed. The deepest accessible part of the pile is a strongly zeolitised agglomerate (Cirque Agglomerate) made up mainly of olivine-basalt fragments. This is covered by a thick sequence of oceanite and olivine-basalt flows (Oceanite Series), which in turn is overlain by feldsparphyric basalts and lavas of intermediate composition (Differentiated Series). An intricate plexus of intrusions, ranging in composition from picrite to quartz-syenite, is exposed in the core of the volcano. Piton de la Fournaise is still active, and is producing oceanites and olivine-basalts generally similar in character to the Oceanite Series lavas of Piton des Neiges. New chemical data on the « primitive » basalts of both volcanoes are presented, and a brief comparison is made with the Hawaiian tholeiites. It is concluded that the Réunion « primitive » basalts are best described as transitional between tholeiitic and alkaline.