Corrosion of metal roof materials related to volcanic ash interactions

Metal roofing material is commonly used for residential and industrial roofs in volcanically active areas. Increased corrosion of metal roofing from chemically reactive volcanic ash following ash deposition post-eruption is a major concern due to decreasing the function and stability of roofs. Currently, assessment of ash-induced corrosion is anecdotal, and quantitative data are lacking. Here, we systematically evaluate the corrosive effects of volcanic ash, specifically ash leachates, on a variety of metal roofing materials (i.e. weathered steel, zinc, galvanized steel, and Colorsteel©) utilizing weathering chamber experiments and direct acid treatments. Weathering chamber tests were carried out for up to 30 days, and visual, chemical, and surface analyses did not definitively identify significant corrosion in any of the test roofing metal samples. Direct concentrated acid treatments with hydrochloric (HCl), sulphuric (H₂SO₄), and hydrofluoric (HF) acids demonstrate that roofing materials are chemically resilient. Our experimental results suggest that ash-leachate-related corrosion is a longer-term process (>1 month), potentially related to a multitude of factors including increased ash leachate concentrations, the dissolution of the glass matrix of the ash, moisture retention at the ash-surface boundary, and potential reactions involving photo-oxidation. Overall, corrosion is not a simple process related to the short-term release of acid and/or salt leachates from the ash surface, but a product of dynamic interactions involving ash and water at the surface of metal roofing material for extended periods.     

Tephrostratigraphy of the Bedded Tuff Member (Kapthurin Formation, Kenya) and the nature of archaeological change in the later middle Pleistocene

Correlation of volcaniclastic deposits of the Bedded Tuff Member (K4) of the Kapthurin Formation (Kenya) provides the means to assess the nature of archaeological change during the later middle Pleistocene, a time period critical to human evolution but poorly represented at other African localities. Field stratigraphic evidence, and petrographic and electron microprobe geochemical analyses of volcanic glass and phenocrysts, define eight subdivisions of K4 tephra. These include a succession of deposits from a local volcanic source that erupted intermittently, as well as other tuffs likely from different sources outside the Baringo basin. Upper portions of the Bedded Tuff Member date to 235,000 yr. The Bedded Tuff Member is underlain by sediments that include the Grey Tuff, dated to 509,000 ± 9000 yr. The tephrostratigraphic framework defined here is used to place Acheulian and Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological sites in chronological order. Results show the persistence of Acheulian large cutting tool manufacture after the advent of points, considered an MSA artifact type. Two assemblages from the site of Koimilot record the appearance at 200,000–250,000 yr of a variety of Levallois flake production methods, an integral if incompletely understood feature of the MSA, here likely derived from local technological antecedents. Combined evidence from the tools and flake production methods suggest an incremental and mosaic pattern of change in hominin adaptive strategies during the Acheulian–MSA transition.     

Spreading of floating particles by Langmuir circulation

Particles floating on the sea surface, in particular buoyant algae, are drawn into bands by the converging flow between neighbouring Langmuir cells. Floating bands subsequently amalgamate as a result of Langmuir turbulence. Simple models are developed to describe the rearrangement and dispersion of the floating particles. If the production of floating particles has ceased, the mean separation of the bands of particles increases with time and eventually becomes unrelated to the mean distance between the lines of convergence resulting from Langmuir circulation. The concentration of particles in the bands, proportional to the width of bands, and the separation of bands with a given concentration of particles, both increase with time. Care is needed in estimating the width of Langmuir cells to distinguish between surface bands of floating material that is continuously being produced and bands made visible by some earlier, but discontinued, generation. An alternative mechanism for the generation of dense bands of floating algae is proposed.     

Geochemical provenancing of igneous glacial erratics from Southern Britain,and implications for prehistoric stone implement distributions

Sixteen basic and intermediate composition igneous glacial erratics from Anglian (pre-423,000 years) deposits in Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire, southern Britain, were selected for chemical and petrographic analysis in order to determine their original source outcrops. Major and trace element compositions suggest that seven samples (plus two uncertain) originated in the Lower Carboniferous volcanics of the Scottish Midland Valley (SMV), four came from the Upper Carboniferous quartz dolerite association which crops out in Scotland, northern England (Whin Sill) and extends to Norway, and one came from the northern England Cleveland Dyke. One sample of altered dolerite is ambiguous but has some similarity to the Old Red Sandstone (Devonian) age lavas of the SMV, and one meta-basalt sample may be from southwest Scotland or Scandinavia. These results identify specific outcrops which provided glacial erratics within currently accepted ice trails in the United Kingdom, and provide the first supporting evidence based on geochemistry, rather than petrography, for these ice movements. The distribution and provenance of glacial erratics are of importance in archaeological studies, because erratics provided a potential source of raw material for stone implement production. There is a marked geographical correlation between the distribution of prehistoric stone implements of quartz dolerite in the United Kingdom, and directions of ice movements from quartz dolerite outcrops within Britain. This correlation lends support to the hypothesis that prehistoric man made extensive use of glacial erratics for implement manufacture, as an alternative to quarrying at outcrops and subsequent long-distance trade. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.