Study of inorganic ligand-chromium(III)-surface ternary complexes by ESR spectroscopy

Cr(III) sorbed at the solid/water interface of latex and hectorite was studied by ESR spectroscopy in the presence of different inorganic ligands. The ESR spectra of the surface obtained in the presence of selenite, phosphate and fluoride can be explained in terms of ternary surface complex formation. This is contrasted by the behaviour of sulfate and selenate ions which were found to have no effect on the ligand field of Cr(III), either in the adsorbed state or in solution.     

Physical conditions in eruptive prominences at several solar radii

SMM data from the Corograph/Polarimeter experiment giving intensities of H and continuum emission in eight erupting prominences are analyzed to obtain the physical conditions in the regions of H emission. Since the H intensity depends upon three unknowns whereas only two independent observations are available, it is necessary to assume one additional condition in order to obtain unique solutions. Solutions are chosen that give the maximum expansion of the prominence volume as reflected by minimum values of the electron density. These solutions correspond closely with those giving the best agreement between the gas pressure in the prominence and the ambient coronal pressure. Electron densities are found to be of the order of 10⁸ cm^-3 at temperatures near 2 × 10⁴ K.The National Center for Atmospheric Research is operated by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research under sponsorship of the National Science Foundation.     

Buchbesprechungen

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Zur Hyperthermie der menschlichen Haut

Zusammenfassung Mit Hilfe einer für andere Zwecke abgeleiteten Formel für die zeitliche Erwärmung der Oberfläche eines strahlungsdurchlässigen Mediums (Reuter [2]) wird der Versuch unternommen, unter gewissen Voraussetzungen die Zeitspanne einer Hyperthermie der ursprünglich 33gradigen menschlichen Haut auf 41° zu berechnen. Für die Berechnung ist die Kenntnis verschiedener Eigenschaften der Haut in bezug auf Strahlung und Wärmeleitung erforderlich. Die dazu nötigen Unterlagen wurden im wesentlichen nachBüttner [1] in Form der entsprechenden Konstanten verwendet. Eine Hyperthermie auf 41° wurde deswegen gewählt, weil nachde Rudder [4] dabei in der Hälfte der beobachteten Fälle bereits letaler Hitzschlag auftritt. Als Außenbedingungen wurden angenommen, daß die Lufttemperatur 30° betrage und während des ganzen Einstrahlungsprozesses sich nicht wesentlich ändere, ferner, daß Windstille herrsche. Die Einstrahlungs-intensität wurde konstant vorausgesetzt und ebenso der Wärmeverlust der Hautoberfläche durch Abstrahlung und Verdunstung. Den Berechnungen wurde schließlich noch die Annahme zugrunde gelegt, daß es sich um völlig schwitzende Haut handelt, also der größtmögliche Wärmeverlust durch Verdunstung auftritt. Das Ergebnis ist für verschiedene Einstrahlungs-intensitäten und verschiedene Werte der Luftfeuchte aus Tabelle 3 ersichtlich. Es ergibt sich daraus, daß bis zu einer Einstrahlungsintensität von 1,0 cal pro cm² und Minute die Gefahr einer raschen Hyperthermie nicht besteht. Dagegen ist bei einem Ansteigen der Einstrahlungsintensität auf 1,5 cal pro cm² und Minute, was im Einzelfall in unseren Breiten erreicht wird, in niedrigen Breiten jedoch häufig realisiert sein dürfte, die Zeitspanne bis zu einer Hyperthermie auf 41° verhältnismäßig gering und liegt je nach der Luftfeuchte zwischen einer viertel und einer halben Stunde.

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Summary In applying a formula derived for other purposes for the warming of the surface of a medium pervious to radiation (Reuter [2]) it is attempted on certain conditions to compute the span of time of hyperthermy of a human skin surface raised from originally 33° up to 41°. For the computation the knowledge of several skin qualities with regard to radiation and heat conductivity is needed. The essential data are used afterBüttner [1]) in the form of the corresponding constants. A hyperthermy up to 41° was chosen because, according tode Rudder [4], this is the critical temperature where in half of the cases a letal apoplexy ensues already. As to open air conditions the temperature is assumed to be 30° and not to change essentially during the process of incoming radiation. Besides there must be a calm. Both the insolation intensity and the loss of heat of the skin surface by outcoming radiation and evaporation are supposed to be constant. The computations are based on the supposition that the skin is totally perspiring which represents the utmost loss of heat by evaporation. The result is shown on table 3 for different insolation intensities and different values of atmospheric humidity. Hence it follows that up to an insolation of 1,0 cal/cm² min the danger of a rapid hyperthermy does not exist. Whereas in a rising of the insolation to 1,5 cal/cm² min which is now and then reached in our latitudes but often realised in lower latitudes, the span of time for a hyperthermy up to 41° is relatively small and amounts according to atmospheric humidity to between a quarter and half an hour.

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Résumé On tente de calculer le temps nécessaire, sous certaines conditions, pour porter de 33° à 41° la température de la peau humaine à l'aide d'une formule établie dans un autre but et qui donne l'échauffement de la surface d'un corps transparent pour les radiations envisagées (Reuter [2]). Il faut pour cela connaître certaines propriétés de la peau en ce qui concerne le rayonnement et la conductibilité calorifique. Les données nécessaires ont été empruntées àBüttner [1] sous la forme de constantes appropriées. On a choisi une hyperthermie atteignant 41° parcequ'alors d'aprèsde Rudder [4] dans ces conditions dans la moitié des cas observés il y a insolation mortelle. On suppose pour le calcul que la température de l'air est de 30°, constante pendant toute la durée de l'expérience, et que l'air est calme. De plus on suppose un rayonnement incident invariable et une perte de chaleur constante de la peau par émission et évaporation. On admet enfin que la peau est en état de pleine sudation et que par conséquent les pertes de chaleur par évaporation sont maxima. Le tableau 3 montre les résultats pour différentes intensités de rayonnement et pour différentes valeurs de l'humidité. Il en résulte que jusqu'à une intensité de rayonnement de 1,0 cal. par cm² et par minute il n'y a pas de danger d'hyperthermie rapide. Par contre si le rayonnement atteint 1,5 cal. par cm² et par min., conditions parfois réalisées sous nos latitudes et fréquentes sous des latitudes plus basses, le seuil de l'hyperthermie à 41° est assez court et se trouve compris entre 1/4 d'heure et 1/2 heure, suivant l'humidité.

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Clay mineral distribution in surface sediments of the South Atlantic: sources, transport, and relation to oceanography

Surface samples, mostly from abyssal sediments of the South Atlantic, from parts of the equatorial Atlantic, and of the Antarctic Ocean, were investigated for clay content and clay mineral composition. Maps of relative clay mineral content were compiled, which improve previous maps by showing more details, especially at high latitudes. Large-scale relations regarding the origin and transport paths of detrital clay are revealed. High smectite concentrations are observed in abyssal regions, primarily derived from southernmost South America and from minor sources in Southwest Africa. Near submarine volcanoes of the Antarctic Ocean (South Sandwich, Bouvet Island) smectite contents exhibit distinct maxima, which is ascribed to the weathering of altered basalts and volcanic glasses. The illite distribution can be subdivided into five major zones including two maxima revealing both South African and Antarctic sources. A particularly high amount of Mg- and Fe-rich illites are observed close to East Antarctica. They are derived from biotite-bearing crystalline rocks and transported to the west by the East Antarctic Coastal Current. Chiorite and well-crystallized dioctaedral illite are typical minerals enriched within the Subantarctic and Polarfrontal-Zone but of minor importance off East Antarctica. Kaolinite dominates the clay mineral assemblage at low latitudes, where the continental source rocks (West Africa, Brazil) are mainly affected by intensive chemical weathering. Surprisingly, a slight increase of kaolinite is observed in the Enderby Basin and near the Filchner-Ronne Ice shelf.

The investigated area can be subdivided into ten, large-scale clay facies zones with characteristic possible source regions and transport paths. Clay mineral assemblages of the largest part of the South Atlantic, especially of the western basins are dominated by chlorite and illite derived from the Antarctic Peninsula and southernmost South America and supported by advection within the Circumantarctic Deep Water flow. In contrast, the East Antarctic provinces are relatively small. Assemblages of the eastern basins north of 30°S are strongly influenced by African sources, controlled by weathering regimes on land and by a complex interaction of wind, river and deep ocean transport. The strong gradient in clay mineral composition at the Brazilian slope indicate a relatively low contribution of tropically derived assemblages to the western basins.     

Biosiliceous particle flux in the Southern Ocean

The flux of diatom valves and radiolarian shells obtained during short-term and annual sediment trap experiments at seven localities in the Atlantic sector of the Antarctic Ocean (in the Drake Passage, Bransfield Strait, Powell Basin, NW and SE Weddell Sea and the Polar Front north of Bouvet Island) is summarized and discussed. The deployment of time-series sediment traps provided annual flux records between 1983 and 1990. The biosiliceous particle flux is characterized by significant seasonal and interannual variations. Flux pulses, accounting for 70–95% of the total annual flux, occur during austral summer, with a duration ranging between about 2 and 9 weeks. The annual values of vertical diatom and radiolarian flux range between 0.26 × 10⁹ and more than 26 × 10⁹ valves m⁻² and between 0.21 × 10⁴ and 70 × 10⁴ shells m⁻², respectively. Interannual differences in the particle flux range over a factor of 10. Grazers play an important role in controlling the quantity, timing and pattern of the vertical biosiliceous particle flux.The flux pattern of diatoms and radiolarians is similar at most of the sites investigated and shows a close relationship between the production of siliceous phytoplankton and proto-zooplankton. At some sites, however, the radiolarian flux pattern indicates probably phytoplankton production which is not documented by direct signals in the trap record.During their transfer through the water column to the ocean floor, the composition of the biosiliceous particles is altered mechanically (breakdown by grazing Zooplankton) and by dissolution, which significantly affects especially diatoms and phaeodarians in the upper portion of the water column and at the sediment-water interface.Significant lateral transport of suspended biosiliceous particles was observed in the bottom water layer in regions adjacent to shelf areas (Bransfield Strait), and in the vicinity of topographic elevations (Maud Rise), indicating considerable redistribution of biogenic silica in these regions.     

Radar observations of snow formation in a warm pre‐frontal snowband

Abstract

Radar reflectivity measurements and sounding data were analyzed to investigate snowfall production in a long‐lasting snowband that formed in advance of a warm surface front moving across Alberta. The sounding data indicated that the band could have been forced by slantwise overturning during the release of moist symmetric instability combined with frontogenesis. The stability analysis presented here is novel in that it includes ice phase thermodynamics, neglected in previous studies of slantwise convection.

Radar reflectivity fields were analyzed to determine the total snow content and the mass outflow rate as factors of time. The peak value of total snow content was 17 kilotons per km of snowband, and the peak mass outflow rate was 10 tons s^‐1 km^‐1. The snowfall rate averaged across the cloud base was about 0.8 cm h^‐1, and the average snow content remained close to 0.2 g m^‐1. The characteristic time (defined as the ratio of total snow content over mass outflow rate) was about 30 minutes, which is approximately the time needed for the growth of snowflakes by aggregation in the observed temperature range. The precipitation efficiency of the snowband, defined as the ratio of snow mass outflow to water vapour inflow was estimated to be 14%. The precipitation production values observed in the Alberta snowband are compared with previous estimates reported for frontal rainbands and Alberta thunderstorms.     

Rainfall interception in a lower montane forest in Ecuador: effects of canopy properties

Rainfall interception in forests is influenced by properties of the canopy that tend to vary over small distances. Our objectives were: (i) to determine the variables needed to model the interception loss of the canopy of a lower montane forest in south Ecuador, i.e. the storage capacity of the leaves S and of the trunks and branches S_t, and the fractions of direct throughfall p and stemflow p_t; (ii) to assess the influence of canopy density and epiphyte coverage of trees on the interception of rainfall and subsequent evaporation losses. The study site was located on the eastern slope of the eastern cordillera in the south Ecuadorian Andes at 1900–2000 m above sea level. We monitored incident rainfall, throughfall, and stemflow between April 1998 and April 2001. In 2001, the leaf area index (LAI), inferred from light transmission, and epiphyte coverage was determined. The mean annual incident rainfall at three gauging stations ranged between 2319 and 2561 mm. The mean annual interception loss at five study transects in the forest varied between 591 and 1321 mm, i.e. between 25 and 52% of the incident rainfall. Mean S was estimated at 1·91 mm for relatively dry weeks with a regression model and at 2·46 mm for all weeks with the analytical Gash model; the respective estimates of mean S_t were 0·04 mm and 0·09 mm, of mean p were 0·42 and 0·63, and of mean p_t were 0·003 and 0·012. The LAI ranged from 5·19 to 9·32. Epiphytes, mostly bryophytes, covered up to 80% of the trunk and branch surfaces. The fraction of direct throughfall p and the LAI correlated significantly with interception loss (Pearson's correlation coefficient r = −0·77 and 0·35 respectively, n = 40). Bryophyte and lichen coverage tended to decrease S_t and vascular epiphytes tended to increase it, although there was no significant correlation between epiphyte coverage and interception loss. Our results demonstrate that canopy density influences interception loss but only explains part of the total variation in interception loss. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.