The metamorphic and alteration history of West Rand Group shales from distal portions of the Witwatersrand Basin

Summary The maximum metamorphic grade in West Rand Group shales from three boreholes to the east and south of the Vredefort Dome is lower greenschist facies. In most samples the peak metamorphic assemblage consists of quartz + muscovite + chlorite, with the phyllosilicates defining a tectonic cleavage. In many of the samples more coarsely crystalline alteration zones that clearly crosscut both bedding and the tectonic cleavage overprint this assemblage. The alteration zones are localized around minor faults and shears where fluid ingress has occurred. Muscovite was not observed in these zones and the cleaved matrix assemblages has been replaced by assemblages consisting of pyrite + quartz ± chlorite ± stilpnomelane ± calcite ± carbonaceous matter ± Mn-garnet ± epidote ± chalcopyrite. In some of the alteration zones stilpnomelane is a very common product and appears to arise through the breakdown of chlorite + muscovite. K and Fe metasomatism are indicated during this reaction, as well as the obvious mobility of S, Cu and C. Assays on small samples indicate gold introduction into the shales during the alteration event. Chlorite thermometry was used to estimate the equilibration temperature of chlorite from the cleaved matrix and the alteration zones. Temperatures close to 300°C are indicated for both chlorite varieties, and for all three boreholes. These results, and the petrographic data, imply that fluid influx post-dated the formation of the tectonic cleavage, but occurred close to the peak of metamorphism. Comparison between the chlorite thermometry data from this study with those from similar studies in the goldfields indicates very similar peak metamorphic grades in both areas, suggesting that these metamorphic conditions may be typical of almost the entire basin. The one exception is obviously the amphibolite facies metamorphism exposed in the northwestern sector of the collar of the Vredefort Dome. Several recent studies have suggested that this metamorphism is representative of a widespread zone of higher grade metamorphism within the central portions of the basin. The results of this study indicate that this is unlikely to be the case and suggest that these amphibolite facies rocks are probably unique to the northern portions of the dome.

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Die Metamorphose- und Alterationsgeschichte von Peliten der West Rand Group im distalen Bereich des Witwatersrand Beckens

Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel dokumentiert die Metamorphose und Alteration einiger Tonschiefer der West Rand Group, welche in drei Bohrkernen östlich und südlich des Vredefort Domes aufgeschlossen sind. In allen untersuchten Proben entspricht der maximale Metamorphosegrad der unteren Grünschiefer Fazies. Die maximalen metamorphen Bedingungen sind häufig durch die Mineralparagenese Quarz + Muscovit + Chlorit charakterisiert, wobei die Schichtsilikate eine ausgeprägte Schieferung definieren. Viele der Proben zeichnen sich durch gröber kristalline Bereiche intensiver Alteration aus, die sowohl die Schieferung als auch die Schichtung deutlich schneiden und in denen die metamorphe Mineralparagenese überprägt ist. Diese Alterationszonen befinden sich im Bereich von kleineren Störungen und Scherzonen, entlang derer Fluide eingedrungen sind. Muscovit fehlt in diesen Bereichen und die Matrixminerale sind durch die Paragenese Pyrit ± Quarz ± Chlorit ± Stilpnomelan ± Kalzit ± Kohlenstoff-haltiges Material ± Mn-Granat ± Epidot ± Kupferkies verdrängt worden. In einigen Alterationszonen findet man häufig Stilpnomelan, welcher möglicherweise auf Kosten von Muscovit und Chlorit gewachsen ist. Versuche, diese Reaktion mit Hilfe von gemessenen Mineralzusammensetzungen unter Annahme eines isochemischen Systems auszugleichen, scheiterten. Dies ist wahrscheinlich auf die Mobilität von K und Fe, sowie S, Cu and C zurückzuführen. Untersuchungen an kleinen Proben deuten darauf hin, daß die Alteration mit einer Goldanreicherung verbunden war. Die Abschätzung der Gleichgewichtstemperaturen von Chlorit der geschieferten Matrix sowie der Alterationszone mit Hilfe von Chlorit-Thermometrie ergab Temperaturen um 300°C für beide Chlorit-Varietäten aus allen drei Bohrkernen, Diese thermometrischen und petrographischen Daten sprechen dafür, daß die Fluidinfiltration nach Anlegung der Schieferung nahe dem Metamorphosehöhepunkt erfolgte. Ein Vergleich der Daten aus der Chlorit-Thermometrie dieser Studie mit den Ergebnissen ähnlicher Studien in den Goldfeldern ergibt sehr ähnliche metamporphe Bedingungen, was möglicherweise dafür spricht, daß diese Bedingungen typisch für das ganze Becken sind. Die einzige Ausnahme bildet offensichtlich die amphibolitfazielle Metamorphose in den nordwestlichen Randbereichen des Vredefort Domes. Einige neuere Studien spekulieren, daß diese Metamorphose eventuell für eine breite Zone höhergradiger Metamorphose im zentralen Teil des Beckens repräsentativ ist. Unsere Resultate deuten jedoch eher darauf hin, daß diese amphibolitfaziellen Gesteine auf den nördlichen Teil des Domes beschränkt sind.

     

Mineral chemical provenance of Neolithic pitchstone artefacts from Ballygalley,County Antrim,Northern Ireland

A large number of pitchstone fragments and artefacts have recently been discovered at a Neolithic settlement site in Ballygalley, Co. Antrim, Northern Ireland. They consist predominantly of flakes and un‐reworked lumps and cores, with only one complete tool being found. Since no sources of workable pitchstone exist in Ireland, the source must have been the abundant pitchstone volcanic rocks found on the Hebridean Islands of northwest Scotland. The composition of the glass from a number of artefacts is highly siliceous, indicating that they were derived from pitchstones on the Island of Arran; pitchstones from all other Scottish locations are less silica‐rich. In addition, analysis of pyroxene and amphibole microcrystallites within the pitchstone suggests that the Corriegills area of Arran is the most likely source of the Ballygalley artefacts, although the precise outcrop has proved elusive. These finds, and others across Ireland, show that raw materials were being transported and probably traded over considerable distances despite there being suitable alternative sources of material for making tools (flint, etc.) available in the local area. This suggests that the pitchstone had a very specialist use. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Accurate Derivation of Total and Stratospheric Vertical Columns of NO2 from Ground-Based Zenith-Sky Measurements

A new method for retrieving the vertical profile of NO2 from ground-based measurements is applied to four months of measurements made at Aberdeen (57°N) during part of SESAME from November 1994 to April 1995. The retrieval method is shown to be an invaluable tool both for deriving the true NO2 vertical column and for removing the tropospheric contribution to the vertical column. This dramatically reduces the effects of tropospheric pollution in the observations and enables a more appropriate comparison with stratospheric 3-D model results. The comparison confirms the accuracy of the model's transport and its reactive nitrogen photochemistry, although there are some detailed discrepancies.     

Dissolved and particulate phthalate esters in the River Mersey Estuary

The results of two surveys of the distributions of dissolved and suspended particulate phthalate esters in the River Mersey Estuary are reported. Significant contamination of both the water and the suspended particulate fraction with phthalate esters has been measured. Statistical analysis of the results indicates that dissolved phthalate esters behave relatively conservatively within the estuary and that their probable source is the numerous wastewater discharges in the upper estuary. Particulate associated phthalate esters show few consistent trends and it is suggested that they may be associated with specific fractions within the suspended particulate material.     

Local path dependence of U.S. socioeconomic exposure to climate extremes and the vulnerability commitment

Despite improvements in disaster risk management in the United States, a trend toward increasing economic losses from extreme weather events has been observed. This trend has been attributed to growth in socioeconomic exposure to extremes, a process characterized by strong path dependence. To understand the influence of path dependence on past and future losses, an index of potential socioeconomic exposure was developed at the U.S. county level based upon population size and inflation-adjusted wealth proxies. Since 1960, exposure has increased preferentially in the U.S. Southeast (particularly coastal and urban counties) and Southwest relative to the Great Plains and Northeast. Projected changes in exposure from 2009 to 2054 based upon scenarios of future demographic and economic change suggest a long-term commitment to increasing, but spatially heterogeneous, exposure to extremes, independent of climate change. The implications of this path dependence are examined in the context of several natural hazards. Using methods previously reported in the literature, annualized county-level losses from 1960 to 2008 for five climate-related natural hazards were normalized to 2009 values and then scaled based upon projected changes in exposure and two different estimates of the exposure elasticity of losses. Results indicate that losses from extreme events will grow by a factor of 1.3–1.7 and 1.8–3.9 by 2025 and 2050, respectively, with the exposure elasticity representing a major source of uncertainty. The implications of increasing physical vulnerability to extreme weather events for investments in disaster risk management are ultimately contingent upon the normative values of societal actors.