Depth versus (age)1/2: A perspective on mid-ocean rises

The straight-line relationship between depth and the square root of age predicted by recent variations of the thermal contraction model for ocean rise elevation is confirmed to an age of 80 m.y.We then examine this relationship in the immediate vicinity of the rise crest in an attempt to determine the sensitivity of the slopes thus obtained. Depth versus t^1/2 profiles from a variety of rise types ranging from the topographically smooth, fast-spreading Pacific-Antarctic rise to the rough, slow-spreading Mid-Atlantic rise are discussed, ages having been assigned using a finite rotation pole. Because of the variety of superimposed anomalous features concentrated within a limited and well-surveyed region, the Galapagos Spreading Center has provided a suitable arena for determining the precision with which the method can decompose such an agglomeration into distinctly recognizable components. Although topographic “noise” precludes precise quantification of the slopes, it is concluded that, by removing the first-order effect of thermal contraction, the method can be quite revealing when topography is examined in relation to other data. Slopes for several profiles across the Pacific-Antarctic and Pacific-Nazca rises reveal the pattern expected in the case of asymmetric spreading, a conclusion which has independently been derived from the magnetic anomalies. In the Galapagos region “jumps” of the spreading center, a basic compositional difference, and uplift from below are exposed by their predictable effect on the slopes obtained from the depth versus t^1/2 plots.     

Microtextural investigation (SEM and TEM study) of phyllosilicates in a major thrust fault zone (Monte Perdido, southern Pyrenees): impact on fault reactivation

Thrusting fault zone in foreland basins are characterized by highly foliated zones generally enriched in phyllosilicates which can play a major role on the mechanical behaviour of the fault. In this context, investigations of synkinematic clay minerals permit to determine the origin of the fluid from which they precipitated as well as the mechanisms of deformation. Our study is focused on clay mineral assemblages (illite and chlorite) in a major thrust fault located in the Monte Perdido massif (southern Pyrenees), a shallow thrust that affects upper cretaceous-paleocene platform carbonates and lower Eocene marls and turbidites. It implied 3?km of displacement of the Monte Perdido thrust unit with respect to the underlying Gavarnie unit. In this area the cleavage development by pressure-solution is linked to the Monte Perdido and Gavarnie thrust activity. The core zone of the fault, about 6?m thick, consists of an interval of intensely deformed clay-bearing rocks bounded by major shear surfaces. The deformed sediment is markedly darker than the protolith. Calcite-quartz shear veins along the shear planes are abundant. Detailed SEM and TEM observations of highly deformed fault zone samples indicate that clay mineral enrichment in the core zone of the fault is not only related to passive increase by pressure-solution mechanism but that dissolution?Crecrystallization of phyllosilicates occurs during deformation. A mineral segregation is observed in the highly deformed zone. Newly formed 2M ₁ muscovite is present along the cleavage whereas IIb chlorite crystals fill S_V2 shear veins suggesting syntectonic growth of phyllosilicates in the presence of fluids in low-grade metamorphic conditions. These mineralogical reactions act as weakening processes and would favour Monte Perdido fault creeping.     

The geochemistry of gem opals as evidence of their origin

Seventy-seven gem opals from ten countries were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) through a dilution process, in order to establish the nature of the impurities. The results are correlated to the mode of formation and physical properties and are instrumental in establishing the geographical origin of a gem opal. The geochemistry of an opal is shown to be dependant mostly on the host rock, at least for examples from Mexico and Brazil, even if modified by weathering processes. In order of decreasing concentration, the main impurities present are Al, Ca, Fe, K, Na, and Mg (more than 500 ppm). Other noticeable elements in lesser amounts are Ba, followed by Zr, Sr, Rb, U, and Pb. For the first time, geochemistry helps to discriminate some varieties of opals. The Ba content, as well as the chondrite-normalized REE pattern, are the keys to separating sedimentary opals (Ba > 110 ppm, Eu and Ce anomalies) from volcanic opals (Ba < 110 ppm, no Eu or Ce anomaly). The Ca content, and to a lesser extent that of Mg, Al, K and Nb, helps to distinguish gem opals from different volcanic environments. The limited range of concentrations for all elements in precious (play-of-color) compared to common opals, indicates that this variety must have very specific, or more restricted, conditions of formation. We tentatively interpreted the presence of impurities in terms of crystallochemistry, even if opal is a poorly crystallized or amorphous material. The main replacement is the substitution of Si⁴⁺ by Al³⁺ and Fe³⁺. The induced charge imbalance is compensated chiefly by Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Mn²⁺, Ba²⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺. In terms of origin of color, greater concentrations of iron induce darker colors (from yellow to “chocolate brown”). This element inhibits luminescence for concentrations above 1000 ppm, whereas already a low content in U (≤ 1 ppm) induces a green luminescence.     

Steroid and triterpenoid distributions in bransfield strait sediments: Hydrothermally-enhanced diagenetic transformations

Recent sediments from Bransfield Strait, Antarctica have been analyzed for triterpenoid and steroid hydrocarbons, sterols and steroid ketones to consider the effects of hydrothermal fluids on the sedimentary organic matter. The steroid distributions in unaltered and altered sediments are controlled more by inputs from source organisms than by the effects of hydrothermal activity, which is suggested to be limited to low temperature alteration. Nevertheless, chemical reactions occurred in altered sediments and include dehydration of sterols to sterenes, isomerization of triterpenes and sterenes, rearrangement of sterenes to diasterenes and reductive processes leading to generation of phytane from phytol via phytenes.     

Large-Scale Structures over a Single Street Canyon Immersed in an Urban-Type Boundary Layer

An analysis of the dynamics of the flow over a street canyon immersed in an atmospheric boundary layer is presented, using particle image velocimetry measurements in a wind tunnel. Care was taken to generate a 1:200 model scale urban type boundary layer that is correctly scaled to the size of the canyon buildings. Using proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) of the velocity field and conditional averaging techniques, it is first shown that the flow above the opening of the canyon consists of a shear layer separating from the upstream obstacle, animated by a coherent flapping motion and generating large-scale vortical structures. These structures are alternately injected into the canyon or shed off the obstacle into the outer flow. It is shown that unsteady fluid exchanges between the canyon and the outer flow are mainly driven by the shear layer. Finally, using POD, the non-linear interaction between the large-scale structures of the oncoming atmospheric boundary layer and the flow over the canyon is demonstrated.     

Relating remotely sensed forest damage data to wind data: storms Lothar (1999) and Vivian (1990) in Switzerland

This study compares the surface wind speed and forest damage data of two exceptionally severe winter storms, Vivian 1990 and Lothar 1999. The study area comprises the region that suffered damage in Switzerland. The wind speed data were derived from simulations of MeteoSwiss (Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology), measurements during the storm periods and expert analyses of the data. The remotely sensed forest damage data were provided by the Federal Office for the Environment and the forest cover data by Swiss Federal Statistical Office. We compared data on the peak gust and maximum average wind speed, with data on the spatially related forest area and forest damage area, and found some clear differences in the correlations between the different wind data and forest damage. Our results point generally to the damage-causing role of near-surface gusts at maximum wind speeds during the storm. These tended to be spatially distributed on a fine scale. In only a few cases were the results statistically significant. However, these results could probably be improved with better wind data. For example, gust measurements spatially closer to forests or simulations of gusts at maximum wind speed could be produced with a spatially higher resolution.     

Phosphate removal from water by naturally occurring shale,sandstone, and laterite: The role of iron oxides and of soluble species

Aqueous phosphate removal by three geomaterials from Ivory Coast was evaluated to determine their potential application as low-cost phosphate adsorbents in wastewater treatment. Batch experiments showed that phosphate uptake strongly depended on pH. Laterite and sandstone dissolution was less pronounced compared to shale. A correlation between concentrations of aqueous cation species released from shale and phosphate uptake was observed. The kinetics were well described using the pseudo-second-order model. Isotherms displayed a saturation level on shale, while phosphate uptake continuously increased for laterite and sandstone. The removal efficiency decreased in the following ranking order: laterite > sandstone > shale. Laterite was also the most efficient adsorbent in column experiments. The high phosphate removal efficiency of laterite (8.3 mg PO₄ g^?1) was attributed to the presence of superparamagnetic low grain sizes of goethite. Laterite is a particularly promising material for further investigation in wastewater treatment technology such as constructed wetlands.     

Difference in petrophysical properties between foliated and dilatant fault rocks in deeply buried clastics: The case of the Grès d'Annot Formation,SW French Alps

This study describes normal fault zones formed in foreland arkosic turbidites (the Grès d'Annot Formation, SW French Alps) under deep diagenesis conditions (~200 °C) and highlights the occurrence of two markedly different fault‐rock types: (1) the foliated fault rocks of the Moutière‐Restefond area; and (2) the dilatant fault rocks of the Estrop area. The deformation of (1) is dominated by intra‐ and transgranular fracturing, pressure solution of quartz and feldspar grains and syn‐kinematic phyllosilicate precipitation resulting from feldspar alteration. The combination of these mechanisms results in a strongly anisotropic strain with intense shortening normal to the foliation (pressure solution) and extension parallel to the foliation (quartz‐ and calcite‐sealed extension veins). This deformation implies local mass transfer that may be achieved without (or with limited) volume change. The deformation of (2) is expressed as dilatant quartz‐sealed veins and breccia textures in which the main mechanisms are transgranular fracturing and quartz precipitation. Type (2) implies fault volume increase, isotropy of deformation and mass transfer at distances larger than in type (1). This study discusses the origins of (1) and (2) and shows that the permeability of (1) is anisotropic, with higher values than the host rocks parallel to the Y main deformation axis (i.e. perpendicular to the slip vector), whereas the permeability of (2) is isotropic and equivalent to that of the host rocks.     

Transport of moderately sorted gravel at low bed shear stresses: The role of fine sediment infiltration

A reliable estimation of sediment transport in gravel‐bed streams is important for various practical engineering and biological studies (e.g., channel stability design, bed degradation/aggradation, restoration of spawning habitat). In the present work, we report original laboratory experiments investigating the transport of gravel particles at low bed shear stresses. The laboratory tests were conducted under unsteady flow conditions inducing low bed shear stresses, with detailed monitoring of the bed topography using a laser scanner. Effects of bed surface arrangements were documented by testing loose and packed bed configurations. Effects of fine sediments were examined by testing beds with sand, artificial fine sand or cohesive silt infiltrated in the gravel matrix. Analysis of the experimental data revealed that the transport of gravel particles depends upon the bed arrangement, the bed material properties (e.g., size and shape, consolidation index, permeability) and the concentration of fine sediments within the surface layer of moving grains. This concentration is directly related to the distribution of fine particles within the gravel matrix (i.e., bottom‐up infiltration or bridging) and their transport mode (i.e., bedload or suspended load). Compared to loose beds, the mobility of gravel is reduced for packed beds and for beds clogged from the bottom up with cohesive fine sediments; in both cases, the bed shear stress for gravel entrainment increases by about 12%. On the other hand, the mobility of gravel increases significantly (bed shear stress for particle motion decreasing up to 40%) for beds clogged at the surface by non‐cohesive sand particles. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.