Role of temporal resolution of meteorological inputs for process‐based snow modelling

Accurate snow accumulation and melt simulations are crucial for understanding and predicting hydrological dynamics in mountainous settings. As snow models require temporally varying meteorological inputs, time resolution of these inputs is likely to play an important role on the model accuracy. Because meteorological data at a fine temporal resolution (~1 hr) are generally not available in many snow‐dominated settings, it is important to evaluate the role of meteorological inputs temporal resolution on the performance of process‐based snow models. The objective of this work is to assess the loss in model accuracy with temporal resolution of meteorological inputs, for a range of climatic conditions and topographic elevations. To this end, a process‐based snow model was run using 1‐, 3‐, and 6‐hourly inputs for wet, average, and dry years over Boise River Basin (6,963 km²), which spans rain dominated (≤1,400 m), rain–snow transition (>1,400 and ≤1,900 m), snow dominated below tree line (>1,900 and ≤2,400 m), and above tree line (>2,400 m) elevations. The results show that sensitivity of the model accuracy to the inputs time step generally decreases with increasing elevation from rain dominated to snow dominated above tree line. Using longer than hourly inputs causes substantial underestimation of snow cover area (SCA) and snow water equivalent (SWE) in rain‐dominated and rain–snow transition elevations, due to the precipitation phase mischaracterization. In snow‐dominated elevations, the melt rate is underestimated due to errors in estimation of net snow cover energy input. In addition, the errors in SCA and SWE estimates generally decrease toward years with low snow mass, that is, dry years. The results indicate significant increases in errors in estimates of SCA and SWE as the temporal resolution of meteorological inputs becomes coarser than an hour. However, use of 3‐hourly inputs can provide accurate estimates at snow‐dominated elevations. The study underscores the need to record meteorological variables at an hourly time step for accurate process‐based snow modelling.     

Linking hydrological variations at local scales to regional climate teleconnection patterns

Climate patterns over preceding years affect seasonal water and moisture conditions. The linkage between regional climate and local hydrology is challenging due to scale differences, both spatially and temporally. In this study, variance, correlation, and singular spectrum analyses were conducted to identify multiple hydroclimatic phases during which climate teleconnection patterns were related to hydrology of a small headwater basin in Idaho, USA. Combined field observations and simulations from a physically based hydrological model were used for this purpose. Results showed statistically significant relations between climate teleconnection patterns and hydrological fluxes in the basin, and climate indices explained up to 58% of hydrological variations. Antarctic Oscillation (AAO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and Pacific North America (PNA) patterns affected mountain hydrology, in that order, by decreasing annual runoff and rain on snow (ROS) runoff by 43% and 26% during a positive phase of NAO and 25% and 9% during a positive phase of PNA. AAO showed a significant association with the rainfall-to-precipitation ratio and explained 49% of its interannual variation. The runoff response was affected by the phase of climate variability indices and the legacy of past atmospheric conditions. Specifically, a switch in the phase of the teleconnection patterns of NAO and PNA caused a transition from wet to dry conditions in the basin. Positive AAO showed no relation with peak snow water equivalent and ROS runoff in the same year, but AAO in the preceding year explained 24 and 25% (p < 0.05) of their variations, suggesting that the past atmospheric patterns are equally important as the present conditions in affecting local hydrology. Areas sheltered from the wind and acted as a source for snow transport showed the lowest (40% below normal) ROS runoff generation, which was associated with positive NAO that explained 33% (p < 0.01) of its variation. The findings of this research highlighted the importance of hydroclimatic phases and multiple year variations that must be considered in hydrological forecasts, climate projections, and water resources planning.     

Interpreting geology at Portreath, Cornwall: a resource for geological education

The geology of Portreath preserved both in the natural outcrop and as building stones is assessed as a potential resource for visiting educational groups. Portreath is a former mining port, its expansion and historical development being closely associated with local and regional geology. A fieldwork programme and complementary literature search revealed that this location contains a wide range of accessible rock types suitable for student analysis.     

Optimal use of high‐resolution topographic data in flood inundation models

In this paper we explore the optimum assimilation of high‐resolution data into numerical models using the example of topographic data provision for flood inundation simulation. First, we explore problems with current assimilation methods in which numerical grids are generated independent of topography. These include possible loss of significant length scales of topographic information, poor representation of the original surface and data redundancy. These are resolved through the development of a processing chain consisting of: (i) assessment of significant length scales of variation in the input data sets; (ii) determination of significant points within the data set; (iii) translation of these into a conforming model discretization that preserves solution quality for a given numerical solver; and (iv) incorporation of otherwise redundant sub‐grid data into the model in a computationally efficient manner. This processing chain is used to develop an optimal finite element discretization for a 12 km reach of the River Stour in Dorset, UK, for which a high‐resolution topographic data set derived from airborne laser altimetry (LiDAR) was available. For this reach, three simulations of a 1 in 4 year flood event were conducted: a control simulation with a mesh developed independent of topography, a simulation with a topographically optimum mesh, and a further simulation with the topographically optimum mesh incorporating the sub‐grid topographic data within a correction algorithm for dynamic wetting and drying in fixed grid models. The topographically optimum model is shown to represent better the ‘raw’ topographic data set and that differences between this surface and the control are hydraulically significant. Incorporation of sub‐grid topographic data has a less marked impact than getting the explicit hydraulic calculation correct, but still leads to important differences in model behaviour. The paper highlights the need for better validation data capable of discriminating between these competing approaches and begins to indicate what the characteristics of such a data set should be. More generally, the techniques developed here should prove useful for any data set where the resolution exceeds that of the model in which it is to be used. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Phase relations and liquid lines of descent of an iron-rich peralkaline phonolitic melt: an experimental study

We experimentally investigated the phase relations of a peralkaline phonolitic dyke rock associated with the Ilímaussaq plutonic complex (South Greenland). The extremely evolved and iron-rich composition (magnesium number = 2, alkalinity index = 1.44, FeO* = 12 wt%) may represent the parental magma of the Ilímaussaq complex. This dyke rock is therefore perfectly suited for performing phase-equilibrium experiments, since in contrast to the plutonic rocks of the complex, no major cumulate formation processes complicate defining a reasonable starting composition. Experiments were carried out in hydrothermal rapid-quench cold-seal pressure vessels at P = 100 MPa and T = 950–750 °C. H₂O contents ranging from anhydrous to H₂O saturated (~5 wt% H₂O) and varying fO₂ (~ΔlogFMQ ?3 to +1; where FMQ represents the fayalite–magnetite–quartz oxygen buffer) were applied. Reduced and dry conditions lead to substantial crystallization of alkali feldspar, nepheline, hedenbergite-rich clinopyroxene, fayalite-rich olivine and minor amounts of ulvøspinel-rich magnetite, which represent the phenocryst assemblage of the natural dyke rock. Oxidized and H₂O-rich conditions, however, suppress the crystallization of olivine in favor of magnetite and clinopyroxene with less or no alkali feldspar and nepheline formation. Accordingly, combined low fO₂ and aH₂O force the evolution of the residual melt toward decreasing SiO₂, increasing FeO* and alkalinity index (up to 3.55). On the contrary, high fO₂ and aH₂O produce residual melts with relatively low FeO*, high SiO₂ and a relatively constant alkalinity index. We show that variations of aH₂O and fO₂ lead to contrasting trends regarding the liquid lines of descent of iron-rich silica-undersaturated peralkaline compositions. Moreover, the increase in FeO* and alkalinity index (reduced and dry conditions) in the residual melt is an important prerequisite to stabilize late-magmatic minerals of the dyke rock, for example, aenigmatite (Na₂Fe₅TiSi₆O₂₀), coexisting with the most evolved melts at 750 °C. Contrary to what might be expected, experiments with high aH₂O and interlinked high fO₂ exhibit higher liquidus T’s compared with experiments performed at low aH₂O and fO₂ for experiments where magnetite is liquidus phase. This is because ulvøspinel-poor magnetite crystallizes at higher fO₂ and has a higher melting point than ulvøspinel-rich magnetite, which is favored at lower fO₂.     

Asymmetric seafloor spreading and short ridge jumps in the Australian-Antarctic discordance

The crenulated geometry of the Southeast Indian ridge within the Australian-Antarctic discordance is formed by numerous spreading ridge segments that are offset, alternately to the north and south, by transform faults. Suggested causes for these offsets, which largely developed since ~ 20 Ma, include asymmetric seafloor spreading, ridge jumps, and propagating rifts that have transferred seafloor from one flank of the spreading ridge to the other. Each of these processes has operated at different times in different locations of the discordance; here we document an instance where a small (~ 20 km), young (< 0.2 Ma), southward ridge jump has contributed to the observed asymmetry. When aeromagnetic anomalies from the Project Investigator-1 survey are superposed on gravity anomalies computed from Geosat GM and ERM data, we find that in segment B4 of the discordance (between 125° and 126° E), the roughly east-west-trending gravity low, correlated with the axial valley, is 20–25 km south of the ridge axis position inferred from the center of magnetic anomaly 1. Elsewhere in the discordance, the inferred locations of the ridge axis from magnetics and gravity are in excellent agreement. Ship track data confirm these observations: portions of Moana Wave track crossing the ridge in B4 show that a topographic valley correlated with the gravity anomaly low lies south of the center of magnetic anomaly 1; while other ship track data that cross the spreading ridge in segments B3 and B5 demonstrate good agreement between the axial valley, the gravity anomaly low, and the central magnetic anomaly. Based on these observations, we speculate that the ridge axis in B4 has recently jumped to the south, from a ridge location closer to the center of the young normally magnetized crust, to that of the gravity anomaly low. The position of the gravity low essentially at the edge of normally magnetized crust requires a very recent (< 0.2 Ma) arrival of the ridge in this new location. Because this ridge jump is so young, it may be a promising location for future detailed studies of the dynamics, kinematics, and thermal effects of ridge jumps.The U.S. Government right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty-free license in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Characterizing the distribution of observed precipitation and runoff over the continental United States

This paper describes the development of a comprehensive geographic database of historical precipitation and runoff measurements for the conterminous U.S. The database is used in a spatial analysis to characterize large scale precipitation and runoff patterns and to assess the utility and limitations of using historical hydro-meteorological data for providing spatially distributed precipitation estimates at regional and continental scales. Long-term annual average precipitation (P) and runoff (Q) surfaces (geographically referenced, digital representations of a continuous spatial distribution) generated from interpolation of point measurements are used in a distributed water balance calculation to check the reliability of precipitation estimates. The resulting input-output values (P- Q) illustrate the deficiency (sparse distribution and low elevation bias) of historical precipitation measurements in the mountainous western U.S. where snowmelt is an important component of the annual runoff. The incorporation of high elevation snow measurements into the precipitation record significantly improves the water balance estimates in some areas and enhances the utility of historical data for providing spatially distributed precipitation estimates in topographically diverse regions. Regions where the use of historical precipitation data may be most limited for precipitation estimation are identified and alternatives to the use of interpolated historical data for precipitation estimation across large heterogenous regions are suggested. The research establishes a database for continental scale studies and provides direction for the successful development of spatially distributed regional scale water balance models.