Impact of irrigated agriculture on groundwater-recharge salinity: a major sustainability concern in semi-arid regions

Intensive irrigated agriculture substantially modifies the hydrological cycle and often has major environmental impacts. The article focuses upon a specific concern—the tendency for progressive long-term increases in the salinity of groundwater recharge derived from irrigated permeable soils and replenishment of unconfined aquifers in more arid regions. This process has received only scant attention in the water-resource literature and has not been considered by agricultural science. This work makes an original contribution by analysing, from scientific principles, how the salinisation of groundwater recharge arises and identifies the factors affecting its severity. If not proactively managed, the process eventually will impact irrigation waterwell salinity, the productivity of agriculture itself, and can even lead to land abandonment. The types of management measure required for mitigation are discussed through three detailed case histories of areas with high-value groundwater-irrigated agriculture (in Spain, Argentina and Pakistan), which provide a long-term perspective on the evolution of the problem over various decades.     

Isotope geochemistry of Paleoproterozoic metacarbonates from Itatuba,Borborema Province,Northeastern Brazil: Evidence of marble melting within a collisional suture

Strongly-deformed marbles may be easily confused with linear and elongated carbonatite intrusions. Both rocks may present similar texture and foliation to the host rock, or even cross cutting field relationships, which could be interpreted either as igneous or high-grade metamorphosed marble. Diagnostic criteria are even more complex when there is evidence of melting of the metasedimentary carbonate rock, such as has been described in the Himalayas and in the Eastern Ghats, India.In the Alto Moxotó Terrane, a high-grade gneissic domain of the Borborema Province, Northeastern Brazil, there are metacarbonates associated with banded gneisses and different metaplutonic rocks. Field evidence indicates the absence of other metasedimentary rocks associated with these marbles, thus suggesting that these carbonates were separated from other siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks. The presence of marble also suggests that it may represent the initial stage of a crustal carbon recycling into the mantle. These marbles present many field similarities to carbonatites (e.g., fluid-flow structure) and, together with metagranites and metamafic intrusions, may represent a major collisional tectonic suture.A detailed study of the carbon, oxygen and strontium isotopic composition of these marbles is presented. This study aims to identify the origin of the different isotopic components. It is argued that these rocks were subjected to temperature and pressure conditions that were sufficiently high to have melted them. The isotopic data presented here support this interpretation and indicate the mixing of two components: (i) one characterized by radiogenic Sr isotopes and mantle-like carbon isotopes, which is associated with the gneissic and mafic rocks, and (ii) another characterized by low ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios and highly positive δ¹³C values. Available geochemical data for the upper Paleoproterozoic indicate that the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of ocean water, varying between 0.7050 (2.25 ± 0.25 Ga) and 0.7047 (1.91 Ga), falls within the lower range of the samples from Itatuba and thus reinforces the interpretation that these marbles are sedimentary-derived and were partially contaminated by interaction with the host gneissic and mafic rocks.     

Geochemical and mineralogical evidence of tectonic and sedimentary factors controlling the origin of ferromanganese crusts associated to stratigraphic discontinuities (Betic Cordilleras, SE of Spain)

Ferromanganese crusts were found in carbonates of tectonostratigraphic units located in the northern and southern areas of the eastern External Subbetic of the Betic Cordilleras (SE Spain). The crusts are associated with four stratigraphic discontinuities of the Jurassic pelagic swells sequences: D1 (Late Carixian-Early Domerian), D2 (Middle Toarcian-Early Bajocian), D3 (Middle Bathonian-Middle Oxfordian), D4 (Early Tithonian-Late Albian). Two main textural types of crusts are distinguished. Type I crusts are thin and characterized by the presence of goethite, quartz, albite and phyllosilicates. Moreover, they show Si, Al, Mg, Na, Ti and K contents close to the European Shale Composite contents and Fe/Mn ratios (>350) higher than type II crusts. Type II crusts occur as thicker banded laminae and/or macrooncoids. They consist mainly of goethite and Mn-oxyhydroxides, which are enriched in REE, Co, Ni and Cu and show a strong Ce positive anomaly. After stratigraphical, mineralogical and geochemical data, the crust formation would be produced by the exposition of bottom sediments during long periods to a thin layer of oxidizing sea and porewater enriched in metallic elements. The textural and compositional variations between crusts can be explained by taking into account the bathymetric conditions. In shallower swells, the precipitation of a thick layer of banded type II crusts and in deeper areas, thin type I crusts were formed. Organic influence was only important in crusts from D3 of the northern area where textural evidence indicates the existence of seasonal periodically alternation between organism accretion and fine sedimentation. These were preceded and followed by phases in which the inorganic precipitation of oxides prevailed together with the fine sedimentation.     

An approach for estimating the largest probable tsunami from far-field subduction zone earthquakes

Following the recent unexpected earthquake events of 2004 and 2011, it can be cautiously extrapolated that all major subduction zones bearing the capacity to produce mega-earthquake events will eventually do so given enough time, irrespective of the lack of such in the relatively short historical record. This notion has led to an effort of assigning maximum earthquake magnitudes to all major subduction zones, either based on geological constraints or based on size–frequency relations, or a combination of both. In this study, we utilize the proposed maximum magnitudes to assess tsunami hazard in Central California in the very long return periods. We also assessed tsunami hazard following an alternative methodology to calculate maximum magnitudes, which uses scaling relations for subduction zone earthquakes and maximum fault rupture scenarios found in literature. A sensitivity analysis is performed for Central California that is applicable to any coastal site in the Pacific Rim and can readily provide a strong indication for which subduction zones beam the most energy toward a study area. The maximum earthquake scenarios are then narrowed down to a few candidates, for which the initial conditions are examined in more detail. The chosen worst-case scenarios for Central California stem from the Alaska–Aleutian subduction zone that beams more energy and generates the biggest amplitude waves toward the study area. The largest tsunami scenario produces maximum free surface elevations of 15 m and run-up heights greater than 20 m.     

Taphonomy of guanaco bones in Tierra del Fuego

Guanaco carcasses are deposited in great quantities in Cabo San Pablo, Tierra del Fuego (Argentina), as a result of winter stress. Taphonomic studies indicate that the gnawing action of foxes on guanaco (Lama guanicoe) carcasses produces only very tenuous marks on the bones. Lack of sustained interest in the carcasses by carnivores results in slow disarticulation. The articulated and disarticulated bones are exposed to heavy trampling by guanacos, a process that produces vertical migration of small/dense bones and fracturing of the most weathered bones. An understanding of this ongoing process is important for local archaeology, since modern bones are migrating into archaeological contexts. A regional approach to taphonomy is the most appropriate instrument to solve this and other related problems.     

A proposed probabilistic seismic tsunami hazard analysis methodology

Natural Hazards - We expand on existing probabilistic tsunami hazard analysis (PTHA) approaches by presenting a methodology wherein the epistemic uncertainties associated with tsunami timing,...     

Metamorphic gradients in burial metamorphosed vesicular lavas: Comparison of basalt and spilite in Cretaceous basic flows from central Chile

Partial spilitization of a 9 km thick pile of flood basalts with highly vesicular flow tops gave rise to patterns of secondary mineralogy at different scales: (a) a local pattern of mineralogical variation from the almost unaltered bottom towards the altered top of each flow, and (b) an overall pattern, comparing flow tops throughout the pile, with changes in mineralogical composition within a sequence of metamorphic zones and facies. The local patterns mimic the trend of the overall pattern, but are of opposite direction and telescoped. Thus, a gradual ordering and Andepletion of the secondary albite and increases in the Fe^*/Al ratio of epidote and pumpellyite upwards within individual flows are comparable in range to corresponding overall changes downwards throughout several kilometres. The mineralogical changes within the flows diminish in range towards the more altered deeper part of the pile.The local and overall patterns cannot be interpreted in terms of grade. They represent trends from metastable towards stable equilibrium, this latter only approached in the flow tops of the lower part of the pile. The patterns of secondary mineralogy were formed by an interplay of metamorphic gradients at different scales at any given time, and as burial proceeded. The overall pattern was caused by depth-controlled gradients: increasing P _fluid, temperature and temperature-induced increase of reaction rates, and decreasing fO₂ (downwards in the pile). The local patterns resulted from permeability-controlled gradients: increasing reaction rates, fO₂ and contrast in chemical activity between different domains, and decreasing P _fluid (upwards in each flow). The mineralogical observations reported in this paper fall into line if the overall temperature-induced increase of reaction rates and the local permeability-controlled rate factors played the leading role during burial metamorphism of the pile.     

The Precambrian geology of El Cristo,southern Tandilia Region,Argentina

Metamorphic and granitoid rocks of the El Cristo area, southern part of Tandilia Range, are considered in terms of structural, lithological and geochronological data.The abovementioned area was affected before 2000 m. y. by a first tectono-thermal event that was followed by a second episode of intense SW-NE folding. The latter accompanied or followed by a metamorphism of almandine grade and strong synkinematic to latekinematic granitization during the span 1800-1520 m. y.Succeeding episodes of metamorphism and deformation were less intense and culminated in the local development of a 900 m. y. granite, chloritization and some brittle deformation.

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Zusammenfassung Tektonische, lithologische und geochronologische Daten der metamorphen und granitischen Gesteine der El Cristo Gegend im südlichen Teil des Tandilia Gebirges werden diskutiert.Vor mehr als 2000 Ma wurde dieses Gebiet erstmals von einem tektonothermalen Ereignis erfa\t, gefolgt von einer zweiten Episode starker SW-NE gerichteter Faltung. Letztere wurde begleitet oder gefolgt von einer Almandingrad Metamorphose und starker synbis spÄtkinematischer Granitisierung wÄhrend der Zeitspanne 1800 bis 1520 Ma.Darauffolgende Metamorphosen und Deformationsereignisse waren weniger intensiv und endeten um 900 Ma in Lokaler Granitintrusion, Chloritisierung und spröder Deformation.

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Résumé Des roches métamorphiques et granitoÏdes de la région de Cristo font ici l'objet d'une discussion sur la base de données structurales, lithologiques et géochronologiques.La région mentionnée a été marquée d'abord, il y a plus de 2000 millions d'années, par une phénomène thermo-tectonique, suivi, dans une seconde phase, d'un plissement important dirigé SO-NE. Celui-ci a été accompagné ou suivi par un métamorphisme à almandin et par une intense granitisation syncinématique à tardicinématique au cours de la période 1800-1500 m. a.Des épisodes de métamorphisme et de déformation moins intenses s'ensuivirent, qui aboutirent au développement local, vers 900 m. a., d'une intrusion granitique, avec chloritisation et déformations cassantes.

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, - , 2000 - , SW-NE. 1800 1520 . , 900 .

     

The Middle Jurassic radiolarites and pelagic limestones of the Nieves unit (Rondaide Complex, Betic Cordillera): basin starvation in a rifted marginal slope of the western Tethys

Middle Jurassic radiolarites and associated pelagic limestones occur in the Rondaide Nieves unit of the Betic Cordillera, southern Spain. The Rondaide Mesozoic includes: (a) a thick succession of Triassic platform carbonates, comparable to the Alpine Hauptdolomit and Kössen facies; (b) Lower Jurassic pelagic limestones comparable to the Alpine Hierlatz and Adnet facies; (c) the Middle Jurassic Parauta Radiolarite Formation, described herein; and (d) a thin Upper Jurassic-Cretaceous condensed limestone succession. The Parauta Radiolarite Formation and associated limestones were studied with respect to stratigraphy, petrography, micropalaeontology (radiolarians, calcareous nanno- and microfossils) and facies. Radiolarite sedimentation occurred in the Middle Bathonian in a restricted and dysoxic deep Nieves basin, perched in the distal zone of a continental margin fringing the Tethyan ocean. This margin was adjacent to a young narrow oceanic basin between the South-Iberian margin and a continental block called Mesomediterranean Terrane. The Nieves basin was part of a marine corridor between the Proto-Atlantic and Piedmont-Ligurian basins of the Alpine Tethys. The regional tectonic position, the stratigraphical evolution since the Triassic, the age and the nature of the Mesozoic facies and the palaeogeographic relations to adjacent domains show striking analogies between the Betic Rondaide margin and coeval units of the Alps.