Sustainability,corporate growers,regionalisation and Pacific‐Asia links in the Tasmanian and Hawkes Bay apple industries

This paper examines the differing modes of insertion of the Australian and New Zealand apple industries into world apple markets, part of the evolving global fresh fruit complex. It is argued that the mix and behaviours of key actors in the global apple industry are realigning market links and production systems. Industry actors in Australia and New Zealand are confronting issues of quality and sustainability as a result of pressures from consumers, regulatory measures in traditional and emerging markets, and new technologies of production and distribution. Governments are laying the foundations of national, regional and industry sustainability policies. An examination of the detailed structure and adjustments of the apple industry in Hawkes Bay and Tasmania reveals considerable differences in local responses, institutions and degree of restructuring of markets. The preferences and quality control requirements of export markets are increasingly important, to the extent that cultural dimensions appear to be altering the commodification process.     

Evidence for the Lower Continental Crustal Origin of the Xihuashan Granite

The Xihuashan granite is typically representative of the tungsten-bearing granites widespread in theNanling area of South China. It was considered in the past to have been formed by partial melting of the upper continental crust, with its source rocks most probably of the Sinian or Cambrian. However, detailed REE analyses, studies of the Rb-Sr isotopic system and melting experiments of metasedimentary rocks all argue against this idea. Moreover, stable isotopic data also indicate a deep source origin for S, C, H and O. The authors thus propose a genetic concept of the lower continental crustal source of the Xihuashan granite, and point out further that tungsten deposits related to this kind of granite are linked in some way to deep-seated structure and concentrated along NNE-NE- and ENE-striking major deep fault belts above the transitional zone between mantle uplift and mantle depression.     

Mechanism of energy transfer in the lava lake of Niragongo (Zaire), 1959–1977

Heat and mass transfer rates were studied at the Niragongo lava lake during two expeditions directed by H. Tazieff in 1959 and 1972. The results of this study are as follows:Heat is transferred to the surface of the lake by the movement of lava; gas discharge is a result and not the cause of convection. The chemical composition of the gases and magma has changed very little between 1959 and 1972, whereas the mass and energy outputs differ by an order of magnitude. In 1977 a catastrophic explosion seems to have been caused by tectonic factors, stopping the slow convection of magma under the volcano and hence reducing surface manifestations in the form of the lava lake and escaping fumarolic and magmatic gases. The gas discharge was, in tons day⁻¹, 5000 for H₂O, 11,000 for CO₂, 1000 for SO₂ in 1959, and in 1972 7700 for H₂O, 180,000 for CO₂ and 23,000 for SO₂. These values correspond to an energy transfer of 0.9 × 10⁹ W in 1959 and 16 × 10⁹ W in 1972.     

Massive sulfides in a sedimented rift valley, northern Juan de Fuca Ridge

A number of mounds each several hundred meters across and up to sixty meters high have been observed with SeaMARC II acoustic imagery and Seabeam bathymetry in the sediment-filled axial valley at the northern end of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. The mounds are located a few kilometers west of the eastern valley-bounding normal fault scarp where the local sediment fill is approximately 300 m thick. All of the mounds are believed to be of hydrothermal origin, and one is associated with anomalously high heat flow in excess of 1 W m⁻². A piston core collected from that mound comprises coarse clastic sulfide units interbedded with sulfidic muds. Hydrothermal minerals present in the 2.3 m section include pyrrhotite, pyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, iss (intermediate solid solution in the CuFeZnS system), chalcopyrrhotite, galena, talc, barite, and amorphous silica. Mineral fabrics of the clasts indicate that the material was precipitated at or near the sea floor by mixing of hot hydrothermal fluids with cold seawater. Low concentrations of Zn, Cu, Cd, and Ag relative to those found in unsedimented ridge hydrothermal deposits, and the presence of pyrrhotite as an early phase mineral indicates that the vent fluids have been modified by reaction with sediments beneath the mound. Rapid sedimentation in a rift valley is clearly conducive to the formation of large hydrothermal mineral deposits like those believed to be present within and beneath these mounds. The relatively impermeable sediment cover insulates the crust, inhibits groundwater recharge, promotes long-lived discharge at a restricted number of sites, provides a substrate for the efficient subsurface precipitation of minerals, and through continued sedimentation, protects surficial deposits from the corrosive effects of seawater. No reliable estimate of the bulk composition of the mounds can be made with existing data, but their size is comparable to major hydrothermal mineral deposits found on land; ancient settings in which many land deposits formed are in many ways similar to the one in which the features described here are currently forming.     

Nankai Trough and Zenisu Ridge: a deep-sea submersible survey

Eight submersible dives between 3000 and 4200 m water depth were made off southern Japan in the eastern Nankai subduction zone. Benthic communities associated with chemosynthetic processes were discovered along the 800 m wide active tectonic zone, at the toe of the accretionary prism. A benthic community was also discovered along a zone of active compression, at the foot of Zenisu Ridge, 30 km south of Nankai Trough. Temperature measurements within the sediments below the benthic communities confirm that upward motion of interstitial water occurs there. Studies of water samples indicate advection of methane and light hydrocarbons. Specimens of the benthic community have been shown to have included in their shells carbonate resulting from methane consumption. Thus the benthic communities are related to overpressure-driven fluid advection along tectonic zones with active surface deformation. A 300 m high active scarp at the toe of the accretionary prism is related to relative motion in a 280° direction which is close to the 305° average direction of subduction in this area. The dives establish further that compressive deformation is presently occurring at the foot of Zenisu Ridge. The previous interpretation of the Zenisu Ridge as a zone of recent north-south intraplate shortening, 40 km south of the Nankai Trench, is confirmed. We conclude that tectonic evolution might well lead to future detachment of the Zenisu Ridge and overthrusting of this large piece of oceanic crust over the continental margin. Such a process might be an efficient one to emplace ophiolites over continents.     

Granitic evolution of the Xihuashan-Dangping (Jiangxi,China) Tungsten-Bearing system

Summary Geochemical investigations have been carried out on the granites associated with the intragranitic wolframite vein type deposits of Xihuashan and Dangping (Jiangxi, China). The behaviour of major elements during evolution is identical to that of many evolved granites in orogenic provinces but trace elements and in particular REE indicate a complex magmatic and deuteric evolution. Partial melting or fractional crystallization fail to explain LREE and Eu depletions and HREE enrichments which are more likely due to volatile transfer. Sr isotopes give an age of 155±2 Ma and an initial ratio of 0.7169 excluding the involvement of wall-rock material in the generation of the granites. In addition they indicate that waters involved in the metasomatic and hydrothermal processes are not meteoric but rather magmatic. Suggestions for employment of the distinctive granite REE patterns for prospecting are given.

---

Evolution der Granite im Gebiet der Wolframit-Lagerstätten von Xihuashan-Dangping (Jiangxi, China)

Zusammenfassung Die Wolframgänge von Xihuashan and Dangping (Jiangxi, China) setzen in granitischen Gesteinen auf. Die geochemische Untersuchung der Granite läßt eine Evolution der Hauptelemente erkennen, die identisch mit der von Graniten in Orogen-Provinzen ist. Die Verteilung der Spurenelemente und besonders der SEE weist jedoch auf eine komplexe magmatische und deuterische Entwicklung hin. Partielle Aufschmelzung oder fraktionierte Kristallisation können die Verarmung an LSEE und Eu und die Anreicherung an HSEE nicht erklären; letztere sind eher auf Transport in volatiler Phase zurückzuführen. Geologische Untersuchungen ergeben auf der Basis von Strontium-Isotopen ein Alter von 155±2 Mio. Jahren und ein Initialverhältnis von 0,7169; dies schließt die Beteiligung von Nebengestein bei der Granitgenese aus. Darüber hinaus zeigen diese Ergebnisse, daß die für hydrothermale und metasomatische Prozesse verantwortlichen Wässer magmatischen Ursprungs sind. Bestimmte Verteilungsmuster der SEE in Graniten lassen sich als Hilfmittel bei der Prospektion verwenden.

---

---

With 9 Figures     

Velocity model estimation for depth imaging: Comparison of three tomography methods on a 2D real data set

The estimation of velocity models is still crucial in seismic reflection imaging as it controls the quality of the depth‐migrated image, which is the basis of geological interpretation. Among the numerous existing methods for velocity determination, tomographic methods are very attractive for their efficiency and ability to retrieve heterogeneities of the medium. We present three tomographic methods in order to estimate heterogeneous velocity models from 2D prestack PP reflection data: a traveltime tomography in the time‐migrated domain, a traveltime and slope tomography in the non‐migrated time domain, and a slope tomography in the depth‐migrated domain. The first method (traveltime tomography in the time domain) is based on continuous picked events, whereas the two slope tomographic methods, one in the time domain and the other in the depth domain, are based on locally coherent events, with no assumptions about reflector geometry or the unknown velocity field. The purpose of this paper is not to describe in detail the theoretical basis and implementation of the methods, but to apply and compare their output using the same marine real data set. Based on the estimated velocity models, the migrated images and the common‐image gathers from the three processing routes, the relative strengths and weaknesses of the methods are discussed. Finally, similarities are indicated and potential alternative approaches are proposed.