Privatization of rural industry and de facto urbanization from below in southern Jiangsu, China

At the heart of China’s economic transformation from plan to market is the institutional rearrangement of the ownership of property rights. Privatization of collectively owned township and village enterprises (TVEs) in recent years has significantly changed the rural economy and affected small town development in China. Located mainly in villages and small towns and producing 62% of the total industrial output in Jiangsu in 1994, TVEs played a crucial role in southern Jiangsu (Sunan)’s economic development and urbanization, giving rise to the well-known “Sunan model” of regional development during the 1980s. Since the mid-1990s, ownership transition (zhuanzhi) of the TVEs from collective to private in Sunan has altered the nature of the regional economy and the pattern of small town development. The privatization of TVEs in Sunan has been so pervasive that it can be seen as the “second industrial divide” in the region’s economy. This paper traces the evolution of ownership reform in Sunan’s rural industries leading to the current phase of privatization and analyzes the effects of privatization on de facto urbanization from below in Sunan. Given the importance of privatization, continuous scholarly monitoring of its relationship to regional economic development and urbanization from below is necessary.     

Flood Management Strategy for the Upper and Middle Odra River Basin: Feasibility Study of Raciborz Reservoir

The river Odra, which rises in the Czech Republic and disgorges into the Baltic, suffered an extreme flood in July 1997 which was responsible for the loss of 55 lives and over a billion dollars worth of damage in southern Poland. The return period of the flood is variously estimated between 250 and 1000 years. The paper describes the hydrological and hydraulic studies undertaken for a flood reservoir (storage capacity is approximately 180,000,000 m³) to be constructed on the River Odra just upstream the ancient town of Raciborz, on the border between Poland and Czech Republic. These studies included the hydrodynamic modelling of a 220 km stretch of the river down to the city of Wroclaw where most of the damage occurred, flood damage analysis with and without the proposed reservoir, sensitivity analysis of operating rules for Nysa reservoirs and improvement of flood control capacity of existing channels and polders. Cost-benefits analysis, environmental impact assessments and resettlement plans, in addition to the engineering studies of the dam itself, were also carried out during the project stage but have not been included in the present paper.     

Contact metamorphism/hydrothermal alteration of Tertiary basalts from the Isle of Skye,northwest Scotland

Alkali olivine basalts from Skye were simultaneously contact metamorphosed by Tertiary gabbro and granite intrusions and altered by the hydrothermal convection system that the plutons induced. Four metamorphic zones were mapped around the plutons. Furthest from the intrusions, in the primary olivine zone, metabasalts are composed of combinations of igneous olivine, augite, plagioclase, titaniferous magnetite, ilmenite, zeolites, gyrolite, sulfides, and chlorite-smectite intergrowths. Closer to the plutons, in the smectite zone, saponite and carbonate appear, primary olivine and gyrolite disappear, and zeolites decrease dramatically in abundance. Still closer to the plutons, in the amphibole zone, actinolite, edenite, chlorite, sphene, epidote, andradite, and quartz appear and saponite and chlorite-smectite intergrowths disappear. Along parts of the contact between gabbro and basalt, in the orthopyroxeneolivine zone, orthopyroxene, metamorphic olivine, and biotite appear and amphibole, chlorite, sphene, epidote, andradite, carbonate, and quartz disappear. Whole-rock chemical data indicate only minor change in the major-element chemical composition of the metabasalts during progressive metamorphism/hydrothermal alteration. Two-pyroxene eothermometry and various mineral-fluid equilibria suggest the range of peak temperatures attained in the metamorphic zones: orthopyroxene-olivine zone, 900°1, 030° C; amphibole zone, 400°–900° C; smectite and primary olivine zones, < 400° C. Mineralogical and oxygen isotopic alteration of the metabasalts were closely coupled: Basalts from the primary olivine zone with nearly unaltered igneous mineralogies have normal or near-normal wholerock ¹⁸O>+5 (SMOW); mineralogically more altered basalts from the smectite zone have whole-rock ¹⁸O=+2 to +5; still more mineralogically altered basalts from the amphibole zone (with one exception) have ¹⁸O<+ 2; completely recrystallized hornfelses from the orthopyroxene-olivine zone have ¹⁸O<0. The principal mechanism of isotope exchange between basalt and metamorphic/ hydrothermal fluid probably was heterogeneous mineralfluid reaction.Metabasalts from the orthopyroxene-olivine zone are mineralogically fresh pyroxene hornfelses that record crystallization temperatures > 1,000° C yet have highly altered whole-rock oxygen isotope compositions, ¹⁸O<0%. The hornfelses chemically interacted with metamorphic/hydrothermal fluids either at very high temperatures or while they were heated to > 1,000° C or both. Their mineralogy, however, rules out significant water-rock interaction after they cooled below 900° C. Hydrothermal convection on Skye was a two-stage process: (a) fluid flow through wall rocks initially was pervasive while they are heated; (b) fluid flow after the thermal peak in the wall rocks was sufficiently channelized that rocks such as those in the orthopyroxeneolivine zone were isolated from further fluid-rock interaction during all or almost all of the cooling history of the hydrothermal system.     

Reconstruction of urban stormwater contamination of an estuary using catchment history and sediment profile dating

Cores were collected from the length of Pakuranga estuary, a small urban estuary in Auckland, New Zealand, to determine sedimentation and contaminant history, and in particular the impact of urbanization. Catchment sediment loads for the most recent history (1953–1995), including urbanization since 1960, were reconstructed using the landcover history and soil erosion modeling. Pollen and¹⁴C dating and pre-urban landcover history were used to reconstruct early estuary sedimentation (i.e., post-3000 yr BP to 1960). Heavy metal concentrations, particle size,¹³⁷Cs, pollen, and catchment sediment loads were all needed to disentangle the complex estuarine response to urbanization.¹³⁷Cs profiles did not reflect the historical fallout pattern, but deposition of¹³⁷Cs-labelled eroded catchment soil, coinciding with peaks in urban construction. Temporal variations in stormwater¹³⁷Cs concentrations are likely due to varying contributions from¹³⁷Cs-rich topsoil and¹³⁷Cs-poor subsoils. A similar pattern was observed in heavy-metal concentrations and attributed to street runoff rather than topsoil being diluted by metal-poor subsoils. Dating of the sediment profiles showed that during urbanization sedimentation rates in the tidal creek and estuary were higher than sedimentation rates associated with past agricultural landuse and the original forest landcover. Urbanization has brought about substantial environmental changes in the upper estuary through continued infilling of shallow, intertidal areas, contamination by heavy metals to levels of ecological concern, sediment textural changes, and rapid mangrove colonization of formerly bare intertidal sediments.     

How well do ecosystem indicators communicate the effects of anthropogenic eutrophication?

Anthropogenic eutrophication affects the Mediterranean, Black, North and Baltic Seas to various extents. Responses to nutrient loading and methods of monitoring relevant indicators vary regionally, hindering interpretation of ecosystem state changes and preventing a straightforward pan-European assessment of eutrophication symptoms. Here we summarize responses to nutrient enrichment in Europe's seas, comparing existing time-series of selected pelagic (phytoplankton biomass and community composition, turbidity, N:P ratio) and benthic (macro flora and faunal communities, bottom oxygen condition) indicators based on their effectiveness in assessing eutrophication effects. Our results suggest that the Black Sea and Northern Adriatic appear to be recovering from eutrophication due to economic reorganization in the Black Sea catchment and nutrient abatement measures in the case of the Northern Adriatic. The Baltic is most strongly impacted by eutrophication due to its limited exchange and the prevalence of nutrient recycling. Eutrophication in the North Sea is primarily a coastal problem, but may be exacerbated by climatic changes. Indicator interpretation is strongly dependent on sea-specific knowledge of ecosystem characteristics, and no single indicator can be employed to adequately compare eutrophication state between European seas. Communicating eutrophication-related information to policy-makers could be facilitated through the use of consistent indicator selection and monitoring methodologies across European seas. This work is discussed in the context of the European Commission's recently published Marine Strategy Directive.     

Oxygen isotope evidence for short-lived high-temperature fluid flow in the lower oceanic crust at fast-spreading ridges

Millimeter-scale amphibole veins in the lower oceanic crust record fracture-controlled fluid flow at high-temperatures but the importance of this fluid flow for the thermal and chemical evolution of the lower oceanic crust is unclear. In the section of lower oceanic crust recovered at Hess Deep from ODP Hole 894G, which formed at the fast-spreading East Pacific Rise, these veins are randomly distributed with an average spacing of  1 m. We unravel the history of fluid flow through one of these veins by combining in situ O-isotope analyses of wall-rock plagioclase with major element analyses, geothermometry and diffusion modeling. Thermometry indicates vein sealing by amphibole at  720 °C over a narrow temperature interval (± 20 °C). In situ O-isotope analyses by ion microprobe, with a precision of < 0.5‰, reveal zoning of O-isotopes in plagioclase adjacent to the vein. The zoning profiles can be reproduced using a diffusion model if the duration of O-isotope exchange was ≤ 100 yr. A similar interval of fluid–rock exchange is suggested by modeling potassium depletion in plagioclase adjacent to the vein. If representative of fracture controlled fluid flow in the lower oceanic crust the limited duration of fluid flow, and its occurrence over a narrow temperature interval, suggest that high-temperature fluid flow in this porosity network does not transport significant heat.     

Intercomparison of shipboard and moored CARIOCA buoy seawater fCO2 measurements in the Sargasso Sea

The ocean is an important sink for carbon and heat, yet high-resolution measurements of biogeochemical properties relevant to global climate change are being made only sporadically in the ocean at present. There is a growing need for automated, real-time, long-term measurements of CO₂ in the ocean using a network of sensors, strategically placed on ships, moorings, free-drifting buoys and autonomous remotely operated vehicles. The ground-truthing of new sensor technologies is a vital component of present and future efforts to monitor changes in the ocean carbon cycle and air–sea exchange of CO₂.A comparison of a moored Carbon Interface Ocean Atmosphere (CARIOCA) buoy and shipboard fugacity of CO₂ (fCO₂) measurements was conducted in the western North Atlantic during two extended periods (>1 month) in 1997. The CARIOCA buoy was deployed on the Bermuda Testbed Mooring (BTM), which is located 5 km north of the site of the US Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS). The high frequency of sampling revealed that temperature and fCO₂ responded to physical forcing by the atmosphere on timescales from diurnal to 4–8 days. Concurrent with the deployments of the CARIOCA buoy, frequent measurements of surface fCO₂ were made from the R/V Weatherbird II during opportunistic visits to the BTM and BATS sites, providing a direct calibration of the CARIOCA buoy fCO₂ data. Although, the in situ ground-truthing of the CARIOCA buoy was complicated by diurnal processes, sub-mesoscale and fine-scale variability, the CARIOCA buoy fCO₂ data was accurate within 3±6 μatm of shipboard fCO₂ data for periods up to 50 days. Longer-term assessments were not possible due to the CARIOCA buoy breaking free of the BTM and drifting into waters with different fCO₂-temperature properties. Strategies are put forward for future calibration of other in situ sensors.     

Are spatial patterns of soil moisture at plot scales generalisable across catchments,climates, and other characteristics? A synthesis of synoptic soil moisture across the Mid-Atlantic

The spatial variation of soil moisture over very small areas (<100 m²) can have nonlinear impacts on cycling and flux rates resulting in bias if it is not considered, but measuring this variation is difficult over extensive temporal and spatial scales. Most studies examining spatial variation of soil moisture were conducted at hillslope (0.01 km²) to multi-catchment spatial scales (1000 km²). They found the greatest variation at mid wetness levels and the smallest variation at wet and dry wetness levels forming a concave down relationship. There is growing evidence that concave down relationships formed between spatial variation of soil moisture and average soil moisture are consistent across spatial scales spanning several orders of magnitude, but more research is needed at very small, plot scales (<100 m²). The goal of this study was to characterise spatial variation in shallow soil moisture at the plot scale by relating the mean of measurements collected in a plot to the standard deviation (SD). We combined data from a previous study with thousands of new soil moisture measurements from 212 plots in eight catchments distributed across the US Mid-Atlantic Region to (1) test for a generalisable mean–SD relationship at plot scales, (2) characterise how landcover, land use, season, and hillslope position contribute to differences in mean–SD relationships, and (3) use these generalised mean–SD relationships to quantify their impacts on catchment scale nitrification and denitrification potential. Our study found that 98% of all measurements formed a generalised mean–SD relationship like those observed at hillslope and catchment spatial scales. The remaining 2% of data comprised a mean–SD relationship with greater spatial variation that originated from two riparian plots reported in a previous study. Incorporating the generalised mean–SD relationship into estimates of nitrification and denitrification potential revealed strong bias that was even greater when incorporating mean–SD observations from the two riparian plots with significantly greater spatial variation.     

Developing a long-term outlook for the Great Barrier Reef,Australia: A framework for adaptive management reporting underpinning an ecosystem-based management approach

The Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009 was the first produced in response to a newly legislated requirement for five-yearly reports on the status of and outlook for the Great Barrier Reef. It adopted an ecosystem approach, assessing all habitats and species, ecosystem processes and major uses. By then considering the factors affecting the ecosystem, coupled with an assessment of management effectiveness, it provided a risk-based forward-looking projection for the ecosystem. Rarely has such a comprehensive, ecosystem-based report been produced to guide government action. With no pre-determined path to follow for interpreting the legislative requirements, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) developed a repeatable structure and method for Great Barrier Reef Outlook Reports that impartially and consistently considers the evidence and clearly presents the findings. The GBRMPA worked closely with relevant Australian and Queensland Government agencies as well as researchers, industry representatives and the community while developing the report. That such a report must be produced every five years allows an overview of the effectiveness of management responses to be regularly assessed. It also provides a transparent means of highlighting and tracking emerging risks facing the Great Barrier Reef.     

Preventing and limiting exposure to geo-hazards: Some lessons from two mountain villages destroyed by the Wenchuan earthquake

This paper examines the experiences of two mountain communities- Yinchanggou and Donghekou in the Wenchuan earthquake of May 12, 2008, where Yinchanggou’s tourism economy and natural park system was destroyed and Donghekou was buried by a landslide. We conducted research surveys on both the communities, interviewing survivors and local officials, and observed the destruction/reconstruction, geological, and living conditions. We suggest that protracted educational processes be put into place so that mountain communities possess a knowledge base to consider long-term disaster prevention when building the economy in the fragile and geo-hazardous conditions of the Longmenshan. The Donghekou Earthquake Ruins Park is an exemplar of turning disaster into sustainable, safe development for small mountain villages.