Transport properties of olivine grain boundaries from electrical conductivity experiments

Grain boundary processes contribute significantly to electronic and ionic transports in materials within Earth’s interior. We report a novel experimental study of grain boundary conductivity in highly strained olivine aggregates that demonstrates the importance of misorientation angle between adjacent grains on aggregate transport properties. We performed electrical conductivity measurements of melt-free polycrystalline olivine (Fo₉₀) samples that had been previously deformed at 1200 °C and 0.3 GPa to shear strains up to γ?=?7.3. The electrical conductivity and anisotropy were measured at 2.8 GPa over the temperature range 700–1400 °C. We observed that (1) the electrical conductivity of samples with a small grain size (3–6 µm) and strong crystallographic preferred orientation produced by dynamic recrystallization during large-strain shear deformation is a factor of 10 or more larger than that measured on coarse-grained samples, (2) the sample deformed to the highest strain is the most conductive even though it does not have the smallest grain size, and (3) conductivity is up to a factor of ~?4 larger in the direction of shear than normal to the shear plane. Based on these results combined with electrical conductivity data for coarse-grained, polycrystalline olivine and for single crystals, we propose that the electrical conductivity of our fine-grained samples is dominated by grain boundary paths. In addition, the electrical anisotropy results from preferential alignment of higher-conductivity grain boundaries associated with the development of a strong crystallographic preferred orientation of the grains.     

Lode–gold mineralization in the Tanami region, northern Australia

The Tanami region of northern Australia has emerged over the last two decades as the largest gold-producing region in the Northern Territory. Gold is hosted by epigenetic quartz veins in sedimentary and mafic rocks, and by sulfide-rich replacement zones within iron formation. Although limited, geochronological data suggest that most mineralization occurred at about 1,805–1,790 Ma, during a period of extensive granite intrusion, although structural relationships suggest that some deposits predate this period. There are three main goldfields in the Tanami region: the Dead Bullock Soak goldfield, which hosts the world-class Callie deposit; The Granites goldfield; and the Tanami goldfield. In the Dead Bullock Soak goldfield, deposits are hosted by carbonaceous siltstone and iron formation where a late (D₅) structural corridor intersects an early F₁ anticlinorium. In The Granites goldfield, deposits are hosted by highly sheared iron formation and are interpreted to predate D₅. The Tanami goldfield consists of a large number of small, mostly basalt-hosted deposits that probably formed at a high structural level during D₅. The D₅ structures that host most deposits formed in a convergent structural regime with σ ₁ oriented between E–W and ENE–WSW. Structures active during D₅ include NE-trending oblique thrust (dextral) faults and ESE-trending (sinistral) faults that curve into N- to NNW-trending reverse faults localized in supracrustal belts between and around granite complexes. Granite intrusions also locally perturbed the stress field, possibly localizing structures and deposits. Forward modeling and preliminary interpretations of reflection seismic data indicate that all faults extend into the mid-crust. In areas characterized by the N- to NW-trending faults, orebodies also tend to be N- to NW-trending, localized in dilational jogs or in fractured, competent rock units. In areas characterized by ESE-trending faults, the orebodies and veins tend to strike broadly east at an angle consistent with tensional fractures opened during E–W- to ENE–WSW-directed transpression. Many of these deposits are hosted by reactive rock units such as carbonaceous siltstone and iron formation. Ore deposition occurred at depths ranging from 1.5 to 11 km from generally low to moderate salinity carbonic fluids with temperatures from 200 to 430°C, similar to lode–gold fluids elsewhere in the world. These fluids are interpreted as the product of metamorphic dewatering caused by enhanced heat flow, although it is also possible that the fluids were derived from coeval granites. Lead isotope data suggest that lead in the ore fluids had multiple sources. Hydrogen and oxygen isotope data are consistent with both metamorphic and magmatic origins for ore fluids. Gold deposition is interpreted to be caused by fluid unmixing and sulfidation of host rocks. Fluid unmixing is caused by three different processes: (1) CO₂ unmixing caused by interaction of ore fluids with carbonaceous siltstone; (2) depressurization caused by pressure cycling in shear zones; and (3) boiling as ore fluids move to shallow levels. Deposits in the Tanami region may illustrate the continuum model of lode–gold deposition suggested by Groves (Mineralium Deposita 28:366–374, 1993) for Archean districts.     

Uplift rates defined by U-series and 14C ages of serpulid-encrusted speleothems from submerged caves near Siracusa,Sicily (Italy)

We have established a plausible rate of uplift near Siracusa in southeastern Sicily (Italy) over the last glacial–interglacial cycle using U-series ages of submerged speleothem calcite and ¹⁴C ages of calcite serpulid layers that encrust the speleothems during cave submergence. The precisely determined ages of these sea level benchmarks were compared with expected relative sea level position based on glacio-hydro-isostatic modeling to assess the rate of uplift in this region. When combined with the age of various late Holocene archaeological sites that have been recently described and characterized in terms of their functional position relative to sea level these data collectively define a rate of uplift ≤0.4 mm a^?1 along this portion of the Sicilian coastline. These results are consistent with an age assignment of marine isotope stage (MIS) 5.3 or 5.5 for the Akradina terrace, which in turn places temporal constraints on paleoshorelines above and below this level.     

A flume experiment to examine underwater sound generation by flowing water

The hydrogeomorphology and ecology of rivers and streams has been subject of intensive research for many decades. However, hydraulically-generated acoustics have been mostly neglected, even though this physical attribute is a robust signal in fluvial ecosystems. Physical generated underwater sound can be used to quantify hydro-geomorphic processes, to differentiate among aquatic habitat types, and it has implications on the behavior of organisms. In this study, acoustic signals were quantified in a flume by varying hydro-geomorphic drivers and the related turbulence and bubble formation. The acoustic signals were recorded using two hydrophones and analyzed using a signal processing software, over 31 third-octave bands (20 Hz–20 kHz), and then combined in 10 octave bands. The analytical method allowed for a major improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio, therefore greatly reducing the uncertainty in our analyses. Water velocity, relative submergence, and flow obstructions were manipulated in the flume and the resultant acoustic signals recorded. Increasing relative submergence ratio and water velocity were important for reaching a turbulence threshold above which distinct sound levels were generated. Increases in water velocity resulted in increased sound levels over a wide range of frequencies. The increases in sound levels due to relative submergence of obstacles were most pronounced in midrange frequencies (125 Hz–2 kHz). Flow obstructions in running waters created turbulence and air bubble formation, which again produced specific sound signatures.     

Stress protein expression in Ampelisca abdita (Amphipoda) exposed to sediments from San Francisco Bay

Stress proteins (heat shock proteins, hsps) form part of the cellular protein repair system, and are induced by a wide variety of Stressors. To determine their suitability as tools for assessing sublethal sediment toxicity, we measured levels of members of the stress protein families hsp60 and hsp70 in benthic estuarine amphipods (Ampelisca abdita) exposed to sediments from 23 different sampling sites in San Francisco Bay for 10 d. Concentrations of sediment-associated xenobiotics were determined. Per cent survival was recorded and surviving animals were analysed for stress proteins using western blotting techniques. An inverse correlation (r² = 0.44) was seen between amphipod survival and hsp64 levels, and hsp64 levels were positively correlated with concentrations of total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (r² = 0.5). Principal component analysis revealed that amphipod mortality was linked to a combination of several PAHs (phenanthrene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene) and di-n-butylphthalate at southern San Francisco Bay sites. At northern San Francisco Bay sites, negative correlations were found between hsp64 levels and organotin compounds (MBT, DBT, TBT), and between hsp71 levels and the PAHs, benzo (b,k)fluoranthene and benzo(G,H,I)perylene, suggesting an inhibitory effect of these compounds on stress protein expression.     

Camera system considerations for geomorphic applications of SfM photogrammetry

The availability of high‐resolution, multi‐temporal, remotely sensed topographic data is revolutionizing geomorphic analysis. Three‐dimensional topographic point measurements acquired from structure‐from‐motion (SfM) photogrammetry have been shown to be highly accurate and cost‐effective compared to laser‐based alternatives in some environments. Use of consumer‐grade digital cameras to generate terrain models and derivatives is becoming prevalent within the geomorphic community despite the details of these instruments being largely overlooked in current SfM literature. A practical discussion of camera system selection, configuration, and image acquisition is presented. The hypothesis that optimizing source imagery can increase digital terrain model (DTM) accuracy is tested by evaluating accuracies of four SfM datasets conducted over multiple years of a gravel bed river floodplain using independent ground check points with the purpose of comparing morphological sediment budgets computed from SfM‐ and LiDAR‐derived DTMs. Case study results are compared to existing SfM validation studies in an attempt to deconstruct the principle components of an SfM error budget. Greater information capacity of source imagery was found to increase pixel matching quality, which produced eight times greater point density and six times greater accuracy. When propagated through volumetric change analysis, individual DTM accuracy (6–37 cm) was sufficient to detect moderate geomorphic change (order 100 000 m³) on an unvegetated fluvial surface; change detection determined from repeat LiDAR and SfM surveys differed by about 10%. Simple camera selection criteria increased accuracy by 64%; configuration settings or image post‐processing techniques increased point density by 5–25% and decreased processing time by 10–30%. Regression analysis of 67 reviewed datasets revealed that the best explanatory variable to predict accuracy of SfM data is photographic scale. Despite the prevalent use of object distance ratios to describe scale, nominal ground sample distance is shown to be a superior metric, explaining 68% of the variability in mean absolute vertical error. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA     

On High-Frequency Topography-Implied Gravity Signals for a Height System Unification Using GOCE-Based Global Geopotential Models

National height reference systems have conventionally been linked to the local mean sea level, observed at individual tide gauges. Due to variations in the sea surface topography, the reference levels of these systems are inconsistent, causing height datum offsets of up to ±1–2 m. For the unification of height systems, a satellite-based method is presented that utilizes global geopotential models (GGMs) derived from ESA’s satellite mission Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE). In this context, height datum offsets are estimated within a least squares adjustment by comparing the GGM information with measured GNSS/leveling data. While the GNSS/leveling data comprises the full spectral information, GOCE GGMs are restricted to long wavelengths according to the maximum degree of their spherical harmonic representation. To provide accurate height datum offsets, it is indispensable to account for the remaining signal above this maximum degree, known as the omission error of the GGM. Therefore, a combination of the GOCE information with the high-resolution Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008) is performed. The main contribution of this paper is to analyze the benefit, when high-frequency topography-implied gravity signals are additionally used to reduce the remaining omission error of EGM2008. In terms of a spectral extension, a new method is proposed that does not rely on an assumed spectral consistency of topographic heights and implied gravity as is the case for the residual terrain modeling (RTM) technique. In the first step of this new approach, gravity forward modeling based on tesseroid mass bodies is performed according to the Rock–Water–Ice (RWI) approach. In a second step, the resulting full spectral RWI-based topographic potential values are reduced by the effect of the topographic gravity field model RWI_TOPO_2015, thus, removing the long to medium wavelengths. By using the latest GOCE GGMs, the impact of topography-implied gravity signals on the estimation of height datum offsets is analyzed in detail for representative GNSS/leveling data sets in Germany, Austria, and Brazil. Besides considerable changes in the estimated offset of up to 3 cm, the conducted analyses show that significant improvements of 30–40% can be achieved in terms of a reduced standard deviation and range of the least squares adjusted residuals.