Rapid earthquake loss assessment after damaging earthquakes

This article summarizes the work done over the last decades regarding the development of new approaches and setting up of new applications for earthquake rapid response systems that function to estimate earthquake losses in quasi-real time after an earthquake. After a critical discussion of relevant earthquake loss estimation methodologies, the essential features and characteristics of the available loss estimation software are summarized. Currently operating near-real-time loss estimation tools can be classified under two main categories depending on the size of area they cover: global and local systems. For the global or regional near-real-time loss estimation systems: GDACS, WAPMERR, PAGER, and NERIES-ELER methodologies are presented together with their loss estimations for the 2009 Abruzzo (L’Aquila) earthquake in Italy. Examples are provided for the local rapid earthquake loss estimation systems, including the Taiwan Earthquake Rapid Reporting System, Real-time Earthquake Assessment Disaster System in Yokohama, Real Time Earthquake Disaster Mitigation System of the Tokyo Gas Co., and Istanbul Earthquake Rapid Response System.     

Earthquake awareness and perception of risk among the residents of Istanbul

Awareness and perception of risk are among the most crucial steps in the process of taking precautions at individual level for various hazards. In this study, we investigated the factors affecting better knowledge and greater risk perception about earthquakes among residents of Istanbul. A field survey was carried out, and a total of 1,123 people were interviewed in two districts of Istanbul with different seismic risk levels and from three (low, moderate and high) socio-economic levels (SEL). The findings showed that although the level of knowledge regarding earthquakes and preparedness for them was promising, it could be improved. The results indicated that future preparedness programmes should target people with lower educational and socio-economic levels. The media were the leading source of information among the respondents. Location of the home was a strong influence on individuals having above average earthquake knowledge and even more on high risk perception. Socio-economic parameters (educational level, economic status, SEL of the sub-district and tenure of the home), gender and attitude score were other factors influencing greater risk perception with regard to earthquakes.     

Petrology and Geochemistry of Post-Collisional Early Miocene Volcanism in the Karacada? Area (Central Anatolia, Turkey)

Early Miocene (ca.?21–18 Ma) volcanism in the Karacada? area comprises three groups of volcanic rocks: (1) calcalkaline suite (andesitic to rhyolitic lavas and their pyroclastics), (2) mildly-alkaline suite (alkali basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, benmoreite and trachydacite), and (3) a single trachyandesitic flow unit. Field observations, 40Ar/39Ar ages and geochemical data show that there was a progressive temporal transition from group 1 to 3 in a post-collisional tectonic setting. The calcalkaline suite rocks with medium-K in composition resemble those of subduction-related lavas, whereas the mildly-alkaline suite rocks having a sodic tendency (Na2O/K2O=1.5–3.2) resemble those of within-plate lavas. Incompatible element and Sr-Nd isotopic characteristics of the suites suggest that the lithospheric mantle beneath the Karacada? area was heterogeneously enriched by two processes before collision: (1) enrichment by subduction-related processes, which is important in the genesis of the calcalkaline volcanism, (2) enrichment by small degree melts from the astenosphere, which dominates the mildly alkaline volcanism. Perturbation of the enriched lithosphere by either delamination following collision and uplift or removal of the subducted slab following subduction and collision (i.e., slab breakoff) is the likely mechanism for the initiation of the post-collision volcanism.     

The gold content of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits

Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits contain variable amounts of gold, both in terms of average grade and total gold content, with some VMS deposits hosting world-class gold mines with more than 100?t Au. Previous studies have identified gold-rich VMS as having an average gold grade, expressed in g/t, exceeding the total abundance of base metals, expressed in wt.%. However, statistically meaningful criteria for the identification of truly anomalous deposits have not been established. This paper presents a more extensive analysis of gold grades and tonnages of 513 VMS deposits worldwide, revealing a number of important features in the distribution of the data. A large proportion of deposits are characterized by a relatively low gold grade (<2?g/t), with a gradual decrease in frequency towards maximum gold grades, defining a log-normal distribution. In the analysis presented in this paper, the geometric mean and geometric standard deviation appear to be the simplest metric for identifying subclasses of VMS deposits based on gold grade, especially when comparing deposits within individual belts and districts. The geometric mean gold grade of 513 VMS deposits worldwide is 0.76?g/t; the geometric standard deviation is +2.70?g/t Au. In this analysis, deposits with more than 3.46?g/t Au (geometric mean plus one geometric standard deviation) are considered auriferous. The geometric mean gold content is 4.7?t Au, with a geometric standard deviation of +26.3?t Au. Deposits containing 31?t Au or more (geometric mean plus one geometric standard deviation) are also considered to be anomalous in terms of gold content, irrespective of the gold grade. Deposits with more than 3.46?g/t Au and 31?t Au are considered gold-rich VMS. A large proportion of the total gold hosted in VMS worldwide is found in a relatively small number of such deposits. The identification of these truly anomalous systems helps shed light on the geological parameters that control unusual enrichment of gold in VMS. At the district scale, the gold-rich deposits occupy a stratigraphic position and volcanic setting that commonly differs from other deposits of the district possibly due to a step change in the geodynamic and magmatic evolution of local volcanic complexes. The gold-rich VMS are commonly associated with transitional to calc-alkaline intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks, which may reflect a particularly fertile geodynamic setting and/or timing (e.g., early arc rifting or rifting front). At the deposit scale, uncommon alteration assemblages (e.g., advanced argillic, aluminous, strongly siliceous, or potassium feldspar alteration) and trace element signatures may be recognized (e.g., Au?CAg?CAs?CSb ± Bi?CHg?CTe), suggesting a direct magmatic input in some systems.     

The characteristics of the chemical flow within the Motru catchment area, south — west Romania

The present paper, with reference to the Motru catchment area, contributes to the hydrochemical studies at an international level and to the completion of the characteristics regarding the chemical flow in Romania. In this regard, it emphasizes once again the dependence between the content of dissolved salts (fixed residue — mg/l) on the one hand and the lithological conditions, human activity, flow and the surface of the catchments on the other hand. The calculation and the analysis of the chemical flow for the Motru catchment area (located in the south-west of Romania) was performed on the basis of two parameters: the average flow of dissolved chemical substances (mg/s) and specific average chemical flow (t/kmp year) recorded at the monitoring stations on the Motru River and its tributaries during the period 2005–2009. The values obtained (for example: 2.63 mg/s and 47.7 t/km² year, at the Fata Motrului station, on the Motru River, in 2009) confirm the importance of the areal factors of natural background in the analysis of chemical flow as a morpho-dynamic process and implicitly for the chemical quality of surface waters.     

The effects of elevation on thermal bioclimatic conditions in Uludağ (Turkey)

This study compares the thermal bioclimatic conditions recorded at Bursa (100 m) and Uluda? (1878 m) meteorological stations at 7:00, 14:00 and 21:00 LST (local standard time) between 1975 and 2006, by using the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET), which is calculated from meteorological parameters. The effects of elevation-dependent environmental and atmospheric conditions on thermal perception (i.e., PET) values were analyzed and assessed. The analysis showed that the mean annual difference between PET values in Bursa and Uluda? was 12 ºC. The difference was lower in winter (9 ºC PET) and higher in summer (15 ºC PET). The highest difference between PET values occurred in the afternoon (16 ºC PET) and the lowest difference occurred in the morning (8.4 ºC PET). The differences occur as a result of high altitude and higher surface albedo due to snowfall, which leads to lower PET values and thus to less comfortable thermal conditions. The mean PET values of Bursa and Uluda? decrease 0.67 ºC every 100 m.     

Geomechanical Evaluation of Derinkuyu Antique Underground City and its Implications in Geoengineering

Derinkuyu Underground City, located in the Cappadocia Region of Turkey, is an important structure not only for its antique and archaeological characteristics, but also as a structure in terms of the long-term stability of underground rock structures excavated by mankind. The authors carried out some observational, experimental and theoretical rock mechanics studies in the region from 1996 in the context of a research project supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan for the assessment of the long-term behaviour of Derinkuyu Underground City, and these studies are still continuing. In addition to the monitoring of the environmental conditions such as temperature, moisture and air pressure, they also installed acoustic emission (AE) and electrical potential (EP) measurement systems to monitor the behaviour and response of the surrounding rock at the fifth and seventh floors of the underground city. In this article, the geology, seismicity and state of stress of the Cappadocia Region, climatic conditions in the underground city and its vicinity, short- and long-term behaviours of the surrounding rock, its index and mechanical properties, and effects of water content and freezing–thawing processes were investigated. The stability of Derinkuyu Underground City was also evaluated using theoretical and numerical methods, and the results were presented. Furthermore, its implications in modern geoengineering are also discussed.     

A new Ordovician eurypterid (Arthropoda: Chelicerata) from southeast Turkey: Evidence for a cryptic Ordovician record of Eurypterida

A new species of eurypterid, Paraeurypterus anatoliensis gen. et sp. nov., is described from the Upper Ordovician (Katian) ?ort Tepe Formation of southeast Turkey. The single specimen, preserving the carapace, mesosoma and fragments of appendages, appears morphologically intermediate between the eurypteroid families Dolichopteridae and Eurypteridae. P. anatoliensis retains the plesiomorphic conditions of crescentic eyes with enlarged palpebral lobes and a quadrate carapace with ornamentation consisting of small pustules but also displaying the derived characteristics of genal facets and a row of large acicular scales across the posterior of each tergite. Phylogenetic analysis incorporating each of the major eurypterine clades and all Eurypterina having a three-segmented genital operculum (the triploperculate condition) resolves eurypteroids to be an unnatural group, with Dolichopteridae and Eurypteridae forming part of a grade leading to diploperculate Eurypterina. P. anatoliensis is intermediate between the two eurypteroid families, as is ‘Eurypterus’ minor from the Pentland Hills of Scotland, which is shown to be a distinct genus and assigned to Pentlandopterus gen. nov. Using the phylogenetic topology to infer ghost ranges for each of the major eurypterid clades reveals that the majority of eurypterid superfamilies must have originated by the Katian, indicating a largely unsampled record of Ordovician eurypterids. The occurrence of poor dispersers such as Paraeurypterus in the Ordovician of Gondwana is puzzling, and it has been suggested that they dispersed to the continent during periods of sea level lowstand in the Sandbian and Hirnantian, however this does not explain the lack of Ordovician species in North America and Europe, given the well-sampled nature of these continents, and an alternative is proposed whereby eurypterids originated in Gondwana and radiated out to Laurentia and Baltica in the late Ordovician and early Silurian, thus explaining their sudden appearance in the European and North American rock record.     

Petrogenesis of the ü?kap?l? Granitoid and its Mafic Enclaves in Elmal? Area (Ni?de, Central Anatolia, Turkey)

The Late Cretaceous ükapili Granitoid including mafic microgranular enclaves intruded into metapelitic and metabasic rocks, and overlain unconformably by Neogene ignimbrites in the Ni de area of Turkey. It is mostly granite and minor granodiorite in composition, whereas its enclaves are dominantly gabbro with a few diorites in composition. The ükapili Granitoid is composed mainly of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase, biotite, muscovite and minor amphibole while its enclaves contain mostly plagioclase, amphibole, minor pyroxene and biotite. The ükapili Granitoid has calcalkaline and peraluminous (A/CNK= 1.0-1.3) geochemical characteristics. It is characterized by high LILE/HFSE and LREE/HREE ratios ((La/Lu) N = 3-33), and has negative Ba, Ta, Nb and Eu anomalies, resembling those of collision granitoids. The ükapili Granitoid has relatively high 87Sr/86Sr (i) ratios (0.711189-0.716061) and low εNd (t) values (-5.13 to -7.13), confirming crustal melting. In contrast, the enclaves are tholeiitic and metaluminous, and slightly enriched in LILEs (K, Rb) and Th, and have negative Ta, Nb and Ti anomalies; propose that they were derived from a subduction-modified mantle source. Based on mineral and whole rock chemistry data, the ükapili granitoid is H-(hybrid) type, post-collision granitoid developed by mixing/mingling processes between crustal melts and mantle-derived mafic magmas.     

Distribution of uranium isotopes in the main channel of Yellow river (Huanghe), China

Uranium isotopes were measured in waters and suspended particulate matters (SPM) of the main channel of Yellow River, China that were sampled during four field trips between August 2005 and July 2006. The results show that the concentration of dissolved U (2.04–7.83 μg/l) and the activity ratio of ²³⁴U/²³⁸U (1.36–1.67) are much higher than the average U concentrations and activity ratios of global major rivers. Mass balance calculations using the results of simulated experiments and measurement data show that the section of the Yellow River between Lanzhou and Sanmenxia has its dissolved U derived from two sources: suspended sediments (68%) and groundwater/runoff from loess deposits (32%). Both sources are related to the heavy erosion of the Chinese Loess Plateau.