Foregrounds for 21-cm observations of neutral gas at high redshift

We investigate a number of potential foregrounds for an ambitious goal of future radio telescopes such as the Square Kilometer Array (SKA) and the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR): spatial tomography of neutral gas at high redshift in 21-cm emission. While the expected temperature fluctuations due to unresolved radio point sources is highly uncertain, we point out that free–free emission from the ionizing haloes that reionized the Universe should define a minimal bound. This emission is likely to swamp the expected brightness temperature fluctuations, making proposed detections of the angular patchwork of 21-cm emission across the sky unlikely to be viable. Hα observations with JWST could place an upper bound on the contribution of high-redshift sources to the free–free background. An alternative approach is to discern the topology of reionization from spectral features due to 21-cm emission along a pencil-beam slice. This requires tight control of the frequency-dependence of the beam in order to prevent foreground sources from contributing excessive variance. We also investigate potential contamination by galactic and extragalactic radio recombination lines (RRLs). These are unlikely to be show-stoppers, although little is known about the distribution of RRLs away from the Galactic plane. The mini-halo emission signal is always less than that of the intergalactic medium (IGM), making mini-haloes unlikely to be detectable. If they are seen, it will be only in the very earliest stages of structure formation at high redshift, when the spin temperature of the IGM has not yet decoupled from the cosmic microwave background.     

A Rapid Decision Support Tool for Estimating Impacts of a Vadose Zone Volatile Organic Compound Source on Groundwater and Soil Gas

Diminishing rates of subsurface volatile contaminant removal by soil vapor extraction (SVE) oftentimes warrants an in-depth performance assessment to guide remedy decision-making processes. Such a performance assessment must include quantitative approaches to better understand the impact of remaining vadose zone contamination on soil gas and groundwater concentrations. The spreadsheet-based Soil Vapor Extraction Endstate Tool (SVEET) software functionality has recently been expanded to facilitate quantitative performance assessments. The updated version, referred to as SVEET2, includes expansion of the input parameter ranges for describing a site (site geometry, source characteristics, etc.), an expanded list of contaminants, and incorporation of elements of the Vapor Intrusion Estimation Tool for Unsaturated-zone Sources software to provide soil gas concentration estimates for use in vapor intrusion evaluation. As part of the update, SVEET2 was used to estimate the impact of a tetrachloroethene (PCE) vadose zone source on groundwater concentrations, comparing SVEET2 results to field-observed values at an undisclosed site where SVE was recently terminated. PCE concentrations from three separate monitoring wells were estimated by SVEET2 to be within the range of 6.0–6.7 μg/L, as compared to actual field concentrations that ranged from 3 to 11 μg/L PCE. These data demonstrate that SVEET2 can rapidly provide representative quantitative estimates of impacts from a vadose zone contaminant source at field sites. In the context of the SVE performance assessment, such quantitative estimates provide a basis to support remedial and/or regulatory decisions regarding the continued need for vadose zone volatile organic compound remediation or technical justification for SVE termination, which can significantly reduce the cost to complete for a site.     

The high hydraulic conductivity of three wooded tropical peat swamps in northeast Peru: measurements and implications for hydrological function

The form and functioning of peatlands depend strongly on their hydrological status, but there are few data available on the hydraulic properties of tropical peatlands. In particular, the saturated hydraulic conductivity (K) has not previously been measured in neotropical peatlands. Piezometer slug tests were used to measure K at two depths (50 and 90 cm) in three contrasting forested peatlands in the Peruvian Amazon: Quistococha, San Jorge and Buena Vista. Measured K at 50 cm depth varies between 0.00032 and 0.11 cm s^?1, and at 90 cm, it varies between 0.00027 and 0.057 cm s^?1. Measurements of K taken from different areas of Quistococha showed that spatial heterogeneity accounts for ~20% of the within‐site variance and that depth is a good predictor of K. However, K did not vary significantly with depth at Buena Vista and San Jorge. Statistical analysis showed that ~18% of the variance in the K data can be explained by between‐site differences. Simulations using a simple hydrological model suggest that the relatively high K values could lead to lowering of the water table by >10 cm within ~48 m of the peatland edge for domed peatlands, if subjected to a drought lasting 30 days. However, under current climatic conditions, even with high K, peatlands would be unable to shed the large amount of water entering the system via rainfall through subsurface flow alone. We conclude that most of the water leaves these peatlands via overland flow and/or evapotranspiration. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The distribution of late-Quaternary woody taxa in northern Eurasia: evidence from a new macrofossil database

We present a database of late-Quaternary plant macrofossil records for northern Eurasia (from 23° to 180°E and 46° to 76°N) comprising 281 localities, over 2300 samples and over 13,000 individual records. Samples are individually radiocarbon dated or are assigned ages via age models fitted to sequences of calibrated radiocarbon dates within a section. Tree species characteristic of modern northern forests (e.g. Picea, Larix, tree-Betula) are recorded at least intermittently from prior to the last glacial maximum (LGM), through the LGM and Lateglacial, to the Holocene, and some records locate trees close to the limits of the Scandinavian ice sheet, supporting the hypothesis that some taxa persisted in northern refugia during the last glacial cycle. Northern trees show differing spatio-temporal patterns across Siberia: deciduous trees were widespread in the Lateglacial, with individuals occurring across much of their contemporary ranges, while evergreen conifers expanded northwards to their range limits in the Holocene.     

Nickel utilization in phytoplankton assemblages from contrasting oceanic regimes

In most oceanic environments, dissolved nickel (Ni) concentrations are drawn down in surface waters with increasing concentrations at depth, implying a role for biology in the geochemical distribution of Ni. Studies with phytoplankton isolates from the surface ocean have established the biochemical roles of Ni in the assimilation of urea and oxidative defense. To determine if these requirements are relevant in natural marine planktonic assemblages, bottle-based fertilization experiments were used to test the effects of low-level additions of Ni, urea, or both Ni and urea to surface waters at several locations offshore of Peru and California, as well as in the Gulf of California. Urea and Ni+urea additions consistently promoted phytoplankton growth relative to control and +Ni treatments, except in a coastal upwelling site and Peruvian water. No effect was observed in the upwelling site, but in Peruvian waters urea additions resulted in increased phytoplankton pigments and phosphate drawdown only when Ni was added concurrently, suggesting a biochemically dependent Ni–urea colimitation. In the Gulf of California, Ni additions without urea resulted in increased abundances of cyanobacteria, picoeukaryotes, and the corresponding pigments. As urea additions showed the overall phytoplankton community was also urea-limited, it appears that the cyanobacteria and potentially the picoeukaryotes were colimited by Ni and urea in a biochemically independent fashion. In parallel, radiotracer-based uptake experiments were used to study the kinetics and spatial variation of biological Ni assimilation. In these experiments, the added radiotracer rarely equilibrated with the natural Ni present, precluding estimates a determination of in situ Ni uptake rates and suggesting that much of the natural Ni was not bioavailable. The lack of equilibration likely did not preclude the measurement of community Ni uptake kinetics, nor the comparison of measured rates between locations. The highest V_maxK_ρ^?1 values, which reflect a competitive advantage in Ni acquisition at low concentrations, were observed in stratified nitrogen-deplete communities, potentially linking Ni and nitrogen biogeochemistry in a manner consistent with the biochemical utilization of Ni. Overall, uptake rates were higher in the euphotic rather than non-euphotic zone communities, directly reconciling the nutrient-like depth profile of Ni. The Ni uptake rates observed at the nitrate-replete Fe-deplete Peru stations were an order of magnitude lower than the other sites. This result agrees with calculations suggesting that saturation of the cell surface with Ni and iron (Fe) transporters may limit uptake rates in low Fe waters.     

Geochemistry and petrology of howardite Miller Range 11100: A lithologically diverse piece of the Vestan regolith

The howardite‐eucrite‐diogenite (HED) clan of meteorites, which most likely originate from the asteroid Vesta, provide an opportunity to combine in‐depth sample analysis with the comprehensive remote‐sensing data set from NASA's recent Dawn mission. Miller Range (MIL) 11100, an Antarctic howardite, contains diverse rock and mineral fragments from common HED lithologies (diogenites, cumulate eucrites, and basaltic eucrites). It also contains a rare pyroxferroite‐bearing lithology—not recognized in HED until recently—and rare Mg‐rich (Fo_86‐91) olivine crystals that possibly represent material excavated from the Vestan mantle. Clast components underwent different histories of thermal and impact metamorphism before being incorporated into this sample, reflecting the diversity in geological histories experienced by different parts of Vesta. The bulk chemical composition and petrography of MIL 11100 suggest that it is akin to the fragmental howardite meteorites. The strong lithological heterogeneity across this sample suggests that at least some parts of the Vestan regolith show heterogeneity on the mm‐scale. We combine the outcomes of this study with data from NASA's Dawn mission and hypothesize on possible source regions for this meteorite on the surface of Vesta.     

Variability of gas composition and flux intensity in natural marine hydrocarbon seeps

The relationship between surface bubble composition and gas flux to the atmosphere was examined at five large seeps from the Coal Oil Point seep field (Santa Barbara Channel, CA, USA). The field research was conducted using a flux buoy designed to simultaneously measure the surface bubbling gas flux and the buoy’s position with differential GPS, and to collect gas samples. Results show that the flux from the five seeps surveyed a total of 11 times ranged from 800–5,500 m³ day^?1. The spatial distribution of flux from the five seeps was well described by two lognormal distributions fitted to two flux ranges. The seafloor and sea surface composition of bubbles differed, with the seafloor bubbles containing significantly more CO₂ (3–25%) and less air (N₂ and O₂). At the sea surface, the mole fraction of N₂ correlated directly with O₂ (R ² = 0.95) and inversely with CH₄ (R ² = 0.97); the CO₂ content was reduced to the detection limit (<0.1%). These data demonstrate that the bubble composition is modified by gas exchange during ascent: dissolved air enters, and CO₂ and hydrocarbon gases leave the bubbles. The mean surface composition at the five seeps varied with water depth and gas flux, with more CH₄ and higher CH₄/N₂ ratios found in shallower seeps with higher flux. It is suggested that the CH₄/N₂ ratio is a good proxy for total or integrated gas loss from the rising bubbles, although additional study is needed before this ratio can be used quantitatively.     

Bootstrapped models for intrinsic random functions

Use of intrinsic random function stochastic models as a basis for estimation in geostatistical work requires the identification of the generalized covariance function of the underlying process. The fact that this function has to be estimated from data introduces an additional source of error into predictions based on the model. This paper develops the sample reuse procedure called the bootstrap in the context of intrinsic random functions to obtain realistic estimates of these errors. Simulation results support the conclusion that bootstrap distributions of functionals of the process, as well as their kriging variance, provide a reasonable picture of variability introduced by imperfect estimation of the generalized covariance function.This paper was presented at Emerging Concepts, MGUS-87 Conference, Redwood City, California, 13–15 April 1987.     

Effect of the 1997–1998 ENSO-related drought on hydrology and salinity in a micronesian wetland complex

The potential effects of global climate change on coastal ecosystems have attracted considerable attention, but the impacts of shorter-term climate perturbations such as ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) are lesser known. In this study, we determined the effects of the 1997–1998 ENSO-related drought on the hydrology and salinity of a Micronesian mangrove ecosystem and an adjacent freshwater swamp. A network of 9 piezometer clusters installed at the study site served as sampling points for continuous and manual measurements of salinity and water level. During the drought period from January through April 1998, mean water table levels in the mangroves and freshwater swamp were approximately 12 and 54 cm lower, respectively, than during May through December when precipitation returned to near normal levels. At the peak of the drought (February 1998), the most dramatic result was a reversal in groundwater flow that sent groundwater from the mangroves upstream toward the freshwater swamp. Flow nets constructed for this period and immediately after illustrate the strong hydrological linkage between the two systems. This linkage was also illustrated by measurements of groundwater salinity in the piezometer network. Ninety-six percent of the salinity measurements taken in the mangroves during the study were at least 10‰ less than the salinity of sea water, indicating that the mangroves were consistently receiving freshwater flows. An analysis of variance of groundwater salinity measurements during and after the drought showed that salinity levels in the 0.5 and 1.0 m depth piezometers were greater during than after the drought. In a comparison of salinity values in 0.5-m wells during low tide, mean salinity was approximately twice as high during the drought than after (14.7‰ versus 6.2‰, respectively). This study demonstrates that short-term climate perturbations such as ENSO can disrupt important coastal processes. Over repeated drought cycles, such perturbations have the potential to affect the structure and function of mangrove forests and upstream ecosystems.