Maturation of organic matter in neogene sediments from the Aderklaa oilfield,Vienna Basin,Austria

Summary Poil- and gas-producing horizons in the Tertiary section of the Vienna Basin are intercalated with calcareous shales. In this study, the shales are examined in view of their source rock potential.36 shales from 780 to 2812 m of six inch well cores from Aderklaa 78 hole were analysed for organic carbon by coulometric titration method. Organic C values vary from 0.22 to 2.04% with a mean value of 0.81%. A slight increase in the lower parts of the hole reflects initial differences in organic carbon content. Total bitumen extracts vary between 1.2 and 70.2 mg/100 g shale with a mean value of 270 ppm bitumen compared to a mean of 2480 ppm for average calcareous shale source rock.Aderklaa bitumen largely consists of unaltered material, perhaps being derived early from lipids. Only the deepest bitumen (2812 m) has higher saturated hydrocarbon content which is regarded as contamination from the underlying reservoir. Investigation of the Aderklaa kerogens from 9 shale samples suggests that they are type III kerogens, consisting almost entirely of vitrinite in the deepest sample examined. From vitrinite reflectance (R ₀=0.36 to 0.53, increasing downhole from 820 to 2703 m) it is obvious that kerogens are insufficiently mature to have produced major amounts of hydrocarbons. Plots of the atomic H/C versus O/C ratios corroborate the type III, terrigenous, plant-derived characteristic of Aderklaa kerogens.These investigations of the nature and state of preservation of the Neogene organic matter indicates that the petroleum window lies within pre-Tertiary basement, and that the temperatures were not sufficient for significant degradation of the Neogene Type III kerogen. However, the high hetero-compound content of numerous Vienna crudes suggests contamination with bitumens from this Tertiary organic matter.

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Der Reifegrad organischer Substanz in neogenen Sedimenten des Ölfeldes Akerklaa im Wiener Becken

Zusammenfassung Seit 1930 wird aus tertiären Abfolgen des Wiener Beckens Öl und Gas gefördert. Zwischen tertiäre Speichergesteine sind kalkige Schiefer eingeschaltet, die von früheren Autoren als mögliche Muttergesteine angesehen werden. In dieser Arbeit wird der Reifegrad des organischen Materials in den Schiefern untersucht.Organischer Kohlenstoff wurde in 36 Schieferproben (780 bis 2812 m) aus der Aderklaa 78 Bohrung durch coulometrische Titration bestimmt. Die Werte schwanken zwischen 0,22 und 2,04% C_org und weisen einen Mittelwert von 0,81% auf. Leichte Variation der Werte im unteren Teil der Bohrung sind auf unterschiedliche Anteile des ursprünglichen organischen Materials zurückzuführen.Bitumen-Extrakte ergaben zwischen 1,2 und 70,2 mg/100 g Schiefer mit einem Mittelwert von 270 ppm, im Vergleich zu 2480 ppm Mittelwert für kalkige Schiefer als Muttergestein. Die Bitumen bestehen aus wenig degradiertem, möglicherweise aus Lipiden stammenden organischen Material. Der relativ große Gehalt an gesättigten Kohlenwasserstoffen in Bitumen aus der tiefsten Probe (2812 m) ist wahrscheinlich auf Kontamination durch ein unterliegendes Reservoir zurückzuführen.Untersuchungen des Kerogens an 9 Proben ergab Typ III Kerogen, welches in der tiefsten Probe fast ausschließlich aus Vitrinit besteht. Vitrinit-Reflexionsmessungen (R ₀=0,36 bis 0,53, zunehmende Werte von 820 bis 2703 m) deuten einen geringen Reifegrad an der ausschließt, daß dedeutende Mengen Kohlenwasserstoffe abgespaltet worden sind. Eine Betrachtung der HC- und O/C-Elementverhältnisse gibt weitere Hinweise auf terrigenes, pflanzliches, Typ III Kerogen in den Aderklaa-Proben.Aus der Gesamtheit der Daten über die Zusammensetzung und den Reifegrad des neogenen organischen Materials wird geschlossen, daß keine bedeutende Degradation stattgefunden hat, und daß das petroleum window in prä-tertiären Schichten liegen muß. Der Gehalt an Hetero-Verbindungen in den geförderten Ölen deutet jedoch an, daß es zu Kontaminationen durch das neogene organische Material gekommen ist.

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With 8 Figures     

Analytical Solutions for Free-Hydrocarbon Recovery Using Skimmer and Dual-Pump wells

Accidental release of petroleum hydrocarbons to the subsurface may occur through spills around refineries, leaking pipelines, storage tanks, or other sources. If the spill is large, the hydrocarbon liquids may eventually reach a water table and spread laterally in a pancake-like lens. Hydrocarbons that exist as a separate phase are termed light nonaqueous phase liquids (LNAPLs). The portion of the LNAPL that is mobile, not entrapped as residual saturation, is termed "free product."
This paper presents new analytical solutions for the design of long-term free-product recovery from aquifers with skimmer, single- and dual-pump wells. The solutions are for steady-state flow, based on the assumption of vertical equilibrium, and include the effect of coning of LNAPL, air, and water on flow. The solutions are valid for soils of large hydraulic conductivity where the effect of capillary pressure on coning is small.
The results show how to estimate the maximum rate of inflow of LNAPL for skimmer wells, i.e., wells in which LNAPL is recovered with little or no water production. The paper also shows how to calculate the increase in LNAPL recovery when water is pumped by single- or dual-pump wells. A simple equation is given that can be used to adjust the water rate to avoid smearing of the LNAPL below the water table.     

Response to wind of a model chimney with added damping

Some ad hoc studies are reported which investigated the use of added damping layers at the base of a wind-tunnel model of a chimney as a means of increasing its overall structural damping. Significant increases in the logarithmic decrement were obtained from decaying free-vibration tests and in subsequent wind-tunnel tests corresponding decreases in wind-excited tip response were measured. It was concluded that the technique is promising for wind-tunnel parametric studies in which significant changes in the structural damping are required and recommends further work.     

Structural investigations of Australian coals—III. A 13C-NMR study on the effects of variation in rank on coal humic acids

A quantitative ¹³C-NMR technique was applied to humic acids, isolated from total solvent extracts obtained from coals, varying in rank from lignite to medium volatile bituminous. The results from elemental analysis and ¹³C-NMR structural ratios are interpreted in the form of three distinct structural phases in the maturation of coal humic acids. These phases reflect the rank of the parent coals. A decrease in polar functional group content and corresponding increase in aromaticity is observed with increasing maturation of humic acid chemical structure. Limits are postulated for the oxygen content and level of aromaticity for humic acids derived from higher rank coals.     

The derivation of parent electron spectra from bremsstrahlung hard X-ray spectra

We formulate a numerical method to derive the spectrum of the parent electrons from the hard X-ray spectrum produced in optically thin bremsstrahlung. The method can utilize any form for the bremsstrahlung cross sections, and it provides accurate estimates of uncertainties in the derived electron spectrum based on uncertainties in the photon measurements. This method is applied to test photon spectra, as well as to hard X-ray spectra of the 27 June, 1980 solar flare which was observed by high spectral resolution detectors. Future measurements with much more sensitive detectors will enable this method to be used to derive detailed, accurate flare electron spectra.     

Variegated global expansion: Internationalization strategies in the temporary staffing industry

This article seeks to contribute to our understanding of the internationalization processes of business service sectors through an analysis of the 20 leading TNCs in the temporary staffing industry. While these TNCs broadly conform to a loosely coordinated decentralized or multinational organisational model, there is significant firm-to-firm, spatial and temporal variability in the internationalization strategies that they employ, deriving from both the breadth of the industry - i.e. the range of different staffing activities that it encompasses - and the inherently territorially-embedded nature of staffing industry activity. These complexities are exemplified through consideration, in turn, of the scope of staffing TNCs, their foreign direct investment strategies, levels of central coordination, and degrees of standardization. The analysis demonstrates that, due to the need to respond to markets, temporary staffing TNCs exhibit highly spatially and temporally variable internationalization strategies and there are considerable barriers to both the centralization of control and the standardization of business practices.     

Inferring upwelling rates in the equatorial Atlantic using Be measurements in the upper ocean

Ocean upwelling rates are difficult to measure because of the relatively small velocities involved, and therefore are typically inferred from indirect methods such as heat budget estimates or tracer observations. Here we present the first results using a novel technique, based on the isotope ⁷Be, to infer rates of upwelling along the equator. Beryllium-7 (half-life=53.3 d) is a cosmic-ray produced radioactive nuclide that is deposited by rainfall upon the ocean surface and subsequently enriched and homogenized within the mixed layer. Previous investigations have utilized the penetration of characteristically high mixed layer concentrations into the upper thermocline to trace ocean ventilation and subduction over seasonal timescales. Here, the tracer is used in a reverse sense; that is, the ⁷Be concentration in the usually ⁷Be-rich surface mixed layer will be diluted from penetration of ⁷Be “dead” water upwelled from below. This dilution provides a means to infer upwelling rates. Furthermore, with knowledge of upwelling rates, ⁷Be profiles can be used to constrain vertical diffusivity within the upper thermocline. These ideas were tested with samples collected during the Tropical Atlantic Climate Experiment (TACE) cruise (May 22-June 27, 2009). The observations indicated a nearly linear relationship between ⁷Be inventory and mixed layer temperature, as with increased upwelling, lower mixed layer temperatures correspond to greater ⁷Be dilution from depth. With this data, upwelling rates were estimated at a number of stations near the equator between 0°E and 30°W within and adjacent to the equatorial cold tongue. The derived upwelling rates ranged from 0 to 2.2 m/d, with maximum values found between the equator and 2°S. The corresponding K_z values derived for the upper thermocline were in the range 1-4×10⁻⁴ m²/s.     

The organic geochemistry of ancient sediments—Part II

Several shales and oils ranging in age from 3 million to 2·7 billion years have been investigated for their hydrocarbon content using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry as primary analytical tools. From the Soudan Shale from Minnesota (2·7 × 10⁹yr) the C₁₈, C₁₉, C₂₀ and C₂₁ isoprenoid-alkanes were obtained. The Antrim shale from Michigan (about 265 × 10⁶ yr) yielded the C₁₆, C₁₈, C₁₉, C₂₀ and C₂₁ isoprenoids, as well as a C₁₆ iso-alkane and the C₁₈ and C₁₉ cyclohexyl n-alkanes. The San Joaquin Oil (30 × 10⁶ yr) and the Abbott Rock Oil (3 × 10⁶ yr) contained the C₁₆, C₁₈, C₁₉, C₂₀ and the C₁₈, C₁₉, C₂₀ and C₂₁ isoprenoids respectively. In addition, a series of iso-alkanes (C₁₆−C₁₈), anteiso-alkanes (C₁₆−C₁₈) and n-alkylcyclohexanes (C₁₆−C₁₉) as well as a C₂₁ isoprenoid were obtained from the Nonesuch Seep Oil (1 × 10⁹ yr). This analysis provides a comprehensive picture of the types of biogenic hydrocarbons found in oils and shales of widely differing ages, and in particular, the finding of isoprenoid alkanes in the Soudan Shale furnishes evidence for life processes at that period of geological time.     

The role of lead firms in cluster evolution: The case of the Manchester television cluster

ABSTRACT

The author utilizes recent work in evolutionary economic geography to examine the television cluster in Manchester, UK. A path dependency approach is used to trace the evolutionary phases of the cluster, and to reveal the shifting dynamics of the cluster and the role of key actors. The article focuses on the role of two lead firms – the BBC and Granada. Based on qualitative interview and participant observation data, supplemented with contextual quantitative data collection, the study presents the results of longitudinal research conducted between 2000 and 2014. The author finds that the role of lead firms varied according to the evolutionary phase of the cluster. The role of the broadcasters was most significant during the emergence and growth of the cluster. Both the lead firm and the cluster have been impacted by exogenous factors, particularly regulatory changes. A key trigger point in 2003 led to the evolutionary trajectory of the cluster shifting into decline and stagnation.