Platinum mineralization in the Alaskan-type intrusive complexes near Fifield,N.S.W., Australia. Part 2. Platinum-group minerals in placer deposits at Fifield

Summary The Fiîeld Platinum Province, New South Wales, Australia, contains Alaskan-type mafic-ultramafic complexes with notable PGE mineralization. This mineralization has evolved in several stages ranging from high- to low-temperature hydromagmatic, with weathering and latertic concentration followed by erosion and placer accumulation in alluvial channels. This last stage has furnished the largest quantity of platinum from the area. PGM nuggets were collected in a corridor, south and southeast of Fifield, joining the leads exploited in the past and continuing northwards.The following PGM association was observed in the nuggets: isoferroplatinum, native osmium, osmiridium, iridosmine, laurite and bowieite. Isoferroplatinum is the matrix mineral in the nuggets, while (It, Os, Pt) alloys occur as exsolutions. The nuggets sometimes carry inclusions of euhedral chromite. Two sulphidic phases-laurite and bowieite-are rare and occur embedded as trapped early formed crystals in isoferroplatinum.This PGM association is entirely different, when compared to the PGM in pegmatoid clinopyroxenites (P-units) described previously (Johan et al., 1989), both as to the nature of the mineral species and to the chemistry of isoferroplatinum common to both occurrences. This proves conclusively that the source for the alluvial nuggets must be of a different nature from the presently established hard rock mineralization.The co-existence of iridosmine and osmiridium exsolutions in isoferroplatinum proves a high temperature origin for the nuggets, and excludes a low temperature origin through in situ overgrowth from aqueous solutions in either the laterite or the erosive profile. The presence of chromite inclusions of a certain diagnostic composition indicates that the original host rock for the nuggets was a chromitite within dunite. The chemistry of the coexisting alloy phases provides a temperature estimate of about 800 °C, which is compatible with Alaskan complexes in Alaska and the Urals. The textural study of the nuggets shows different rates of cooling from nugget to nugget, with many textures relating to heterogeneous nucleation in metallurgical processes.

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Platin-Mineralisation in Intrusiv-Komplexen des Alaska-Types bei Fifield, NSW, Australien. Teil 2. Platingruppen-Minerale in Seifenlagerstätten in Fifield

Zusammenfassung Die Platin-Provinz von Fifeld, New South Wales, Australien, enthält mafischultramafische Komplexe des Alaska-Typs mit beachtlicher PGE Mineralisation. Diese hat sich in verschiedenen Stadien entwickelt, die von hoch- bis tief- temperiert hydromagmatisch reichen, und von Verwitterungsbildungen, lateritischer Konzentration, Erosion und Seifenbildung in alluvialen Rinnen gefolgt wurde. Dieses letzte Stadium hat bisher die größte Menge an Platin produziert. PGM Nuggets wurden in einem Korridor südlich und südöstlich von Fifield gesammelt, und diese setzten sich in den Anreicherungen fort, die in der Vergangenheit ausgebeutet wurden.Die folgende PGM Paragenese wurde in den Nuggets beobachtet: Isoferroplatin, gediegen Osmium, Osmiridium, Iridosmin, Laurit und Bowieit. Isoferroplatin ist das Matrix-Mineral der Nuggets, während (Ir, Os, Pt)—Legierungen als Entmischungen erscheinen. Die Nuggets enthalten gelegentlich Einschlüsse von isomorphem Chromit. Zwei Sulfidphasen—Laurit und Bowieit-sind selten und kommen als früh gebildete Kristalle im Isoferroplatin vor.Diese PGM-Paragenese unterscheidet sich grundsätzlich von der in pegmatoiden Klinopyroxeniten (P-units;Johan et al., 1989). Dies betrifft sowohl die Art der Minerale wie auch die chemische Zusammensetzung von Isoferroplatin. Diese Beobachtungen zeigen in überzeugender Weise, daß die Quelle für die alluvialen Nuggets nicht in der jetzt nachgewiesenen Vererzung in Festgesteinen gesucht werden kann.Die Koexistenz von Iridosmin- und Osmiridium-Entmischungen in Isoferroplatin weist auf die hohe Bildungstemperatur der Nuggets hin und schließt eine Tieftemperatur-Bildung durch in situ Überwachsung aus wässerigen Lösungen entweder im Laterit oder im Erosionsprofil aus. Die Anwesenheit von Chromiteinschlüssen definierter Zusammensetzung zeigt, daß das ursprüngliche Muttergestein der Nuggets ein Chromitit innerhalb von Duniten war. Die chemische Zusammensetzung der koexistierenden Legierungen weist auf Temperaturen von ungefähr 800°C; das ist in guter übereinstimmung mit Daten von den Komplexen in Alaska und im Ural. Texturelle Untersuchungen lassen Abkühlungsraten erkennen, die von Nugget zu Nugget schwanken; viele der beobachteten Texturen lassen sich mit heterogener Nukleation in metallurgischen Prozessen vergleichen.

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With 3 plates and 4 figures     

Platinum-Group Minerals from the Durance River Alluvium,France

Summary Platinum-group minerals were discovered, during gold recovery, in the Durance river alluvium, near Peyrolles (Bouches-du-Rhône). The PGM grains (average size 130 microns) are strongly flattened (average thickness 64 microns). The PGM concentrate consists primarily of (Pt, Fe) alloys (92%), (Os, Ir, Ru) alloys (3.5%), and native gold and (Au, Cu, Ag) alloys (4.5%). The following minerals were observed: isoferroplatinum, ferroan platinum, native osmium, native iridium, iridosmine, rutheniridosmine, osmiridium, ruthenian osmium, osmian ruthenium, cuprorhodsite, guanglinite, shandite, tetrauricupride, native gold, bornite, heazlewoodite, (Pt, Pd)₂Cu₃, Pt(Cu, Au), (Ni, Pt)Sn, (Cu, Fe)_1–x (Pd, Rh, Pt)_2+xS₂, (Pt, Pd)_4–xCu₂As_1–x. Isoferroplatinum contains numerous inclusions of alloys, sulphides, arsenides, Pd-tellurides, and partly devitrified silicate glass droplets. Most of the non-silicate inclusions also exhibit a drop-like shape indicating their original entrapment in a liquid state.Cuprorhodsite crystals (up to 20 microns) are associated with bornite included in Pt₃Fe. Rarely, Pd- and Cu-sulphides, and Pd-tellurides appear in this association. Complex droplet-like arsenide inclusions in isoferroplatinum are composed of Pt bearing guanglinite and (Pt,Pd)_4+xCu₂As_1–x. Native iridium shows exsolutions of Ir-bearing isoferroplatinum and (Pt,Pd)₂Cu₃. In places, concentrations of Sn (up to 3 wt.%) were observed in (Au, Cu) alloys. Shandite and (Ni, Pt)Sn inclusions occur in (Au, Cu, Ag) alloys. Silicate-glass inclusions are TiO₂-poor and occasionally K-rich (plotting in the shoshonitic field). Taking into account mineralogical and chemical pecularities of the PGM association occurring in the studied concentrate, it seems highly probable that its primary source should be an Alaskan-type intrusion.

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Platingruppen Minerale aus dem Alluvium der Durance, Frankreich

Zusammenfassung Minerale der Platingruppe wurden im Zuge von Goldgewinnung im Alluvium der Durance in der Nähe von Peyrolles (Bouches-du-Rhône) entdeckt. Die PGM Körner (durchschnittliche Korngröße 130m) sind flach gepreßt (durchschnittliche Dicke 64m). Die PGM Konzentrate bestehen vorwiegend aus (Pt, Fe) Legierungen (92%); (Os, Ir, Ru) Legierungen (3,5%), sowie gediegen Gold und (Au, Cu, Ag) Legierungen (4,5%). Folgende Minerale wurden beobachtet:Isoferro-Platin, Fe-Platin, gediegen Osmium, gediegen Iridium, Iridosmium, Rutheniridosmium, Osmiridium, Ru-Osmium, Os-Ruthenium, Cuprorhodsit, Guanglinit, Shandit, Tetrauricuprit, gediegen Gold, Bornit, HeazIewoodit, (Pt, Pd)₂ Cu₃, Pt(Cu, Au), (Ni, Pt)Sn, (Cu, Fe), (Pd, Rh, Pt)_2+xS₂, (Pt, Pd)_4+xCu₂As_1–x.Isoferro-Platin enthält zahlreiche Einschlüsse von Legierungen, Sulfiden, Arseniden, Pd-Telluriden und teilweise devitrifzierte Silikatglaströpfchen. Die meisten nichtsili katischen Einschlüsse sind ebenfalls tröpfchenförmig. Dies weist darauf hin, daß sie in flüssigem Zustand eingeschlossen wurden.Cuprorhodsitkristalle (bis zu 20m) sind gemeinsam mit Bornit in Pt₃ Fe einge schlossen. Selten sind Pd- und Cu-Sulfide, sowie Pd-Telluride mit diesen vergesellschaftet. Bei den komplexen tröpfehenförmigen Arsenideinschlüssen im Isoferro-Platin handelt es sich um Pt-führenden Guanglinit und (Pt, Pd)_4+xCu₂ As_1–x. Gediegen Iridium zeigt Entmischung von Ir-führendem Isoferro-Platin und (Pt, Pd)₂Cu₃. Stellenweise wurden Konzentrationen von Sn (bis zu 3%) in den (Au, Cu) Legierungen beobachtet. Shandit und (Ni, Pt) Sn Einschlüsse kommen in (Au, Cu, Ag) Legierungen vor. Silikatische Glaseinschlüsse sind TiO₂-arm und manchmal K-reich (im Shoshonitfeld liegend).Auf Grund der mineralogischen und chemischen Eigenheiten der untersuchten PGM Konzentrate ist eine Intrusion des Alaska-Typs als primäre Quelle sehr wahrscheinlich.

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With 4 Figures and 2 Plates     

The timing and isotopic character of regional hydrothermal alteration and associated epigenetic mineralization in the western sector of the Kaapvaal Craton (South Africa)

The Kaapvaal Craton of South Africa comprises an Archaean core of ≈3.5 Ga lithospheric and crustal rocks surrounded by younger accreted terrains of ≈3.0–2.7 and ≈2.1–1.9 Ga. The craton is covered by relatively undeformed 3.0–2.4 Ga supracrustal rocks, which show the effects of thermal and hydrothermal interaction. Part of this activity is manifested by a large number of epigenetic Pb–Zn (±Ag, Au, Cu, F) deposits in the cover rocks of the Kaapvaal Craton. These include small volcanic and breccia hosted deposits in mafic and felsic volcanic rocks of the 2.7 Ga Ventersdorp Supergroup and the Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) deposits in the carbonates of the Transvaal Supergroup.MVT mineralization at the Pering (and other Zn–Pb deposits) is hosted in fracture-generated N–S breccia bodies in the Paleoproterozoic carbonate succession of the western Kaapvaal Craton. The fluids carrying the metals were focused in vertical bodies within the fracture zones (FZ), the metals and the sulphur being carried together and precipitated in organic-rich sectors of the basin. Two small Pb–Zn deposits within mafic rocks of the Ventersdorp Supergroup, stratigraphically below the basin-hosted MVTs on the southwestern part of the Kaapvaal Craton have secondary chlorite which is extremely Rb-rich, associated with the mineralization. This chlorite and the associated altered basaltic host rocks give a Rb–Sr date of ≈1.98 Ga, and the associated galena Pb isotope data plot on the same array as those of other Pb–Zn deposits, the radiogenic intercept giving a date of ≈2.0 Ga. We interpret these data to indicate a craton-wide epigenetic fluid-infiltration event, which exploited the Maquassie Quartz Porphyry (MQP) as the aquifer and metal source.Sr isotopic results for the ore-zone gangue minerals show highly radiogenic ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios (>0.710) which support earlier models that the origin of radiogenic Sr isotopic composition in the calcite cements is the felsic tuffs (MQP) of the Ventersdorp Supergroup occurring at deeper levels within the basin. Relationships between δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C performed on carbonate cements within the aquifers are complex: the range in δ¹³C for some of the cements represents a mixture from two sources and with a progression from heavy carbon in the host to somewhat lighter carbon in the cements. Similarly, the lighter δ¹⁸O values have a narrow range indicative of rapid exchanges between hydrous fluid and rock.     

Geochemistry of the Kola River, northwestern Russia

The Kola River in the northern part of the Kola Peninsula, northwestern Russia, flows into the Barents Sea via the Kola Bay. The river is a unique place for reproduction of salmon and an important source of drinking water for more than 500,000 people in Murmansk and the surrounding municipalities. To evaluate the environmental status of the Kola River water, sampling of the dissolved (<0.22 μm) and suspended (>0.22 μm) phases was performed at 12 sites along the Kola River and its tributaries during 2001 and 2002. Major (Ca, K, Mg, Na, S, Si, HCO₃ and Cl) and trace (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sr, Ti, and Zn) elements, total and particulate organic C (TOC and POC), N and P were analysed. Comparison with the boreal pristine Kalix River, Northern Sweden, shows that, except for Na, Cl, Al, Cu and Ni, which exceed the concentrations in the Kalix River by as much as 2–3 times, the levels of other major and trace elements are close to or even below the levels in the Kalix River. However, the results also demonstrate that pollutants from the three major sources: (1) the Cu–Ni smelter in Monchegorsk, (2) the open-pit Fe mine and ore concentration plant in Olenegorsk, and (3) the Varlamov, the Medveziy and the Zemlanoy creeks, draining the area of the large agricultural enterprises in the lower part of the watershed, have a major influence on the water quality of the Kola River.     

High-grade metamorphic rocks in the pre-Alpine nappe stack of the Getic-Supragetic basement (Median Dacides, South Carpathians, Romania)

Summary Metamorphic rocks in the pre-Alpine basement of the Getic-Supragetic units (Median Dacides of the Carpathian belt) are spatially related to different lithotectonic units, some of which contain high-pressure relicts reflecting an early stage of oceanic and continental subduction, locally synchronous with mylonitic shear zones. Kyaniteamphibole ± quartz-bearing eclogites preserve a complete metamorphic clockwise loop; the estimated peak conditions within the outer part of the Cumpana unit were at least 20 kb at 780–860 °C. Pre-eclogite-stage magmatic phases occur in some units with true equilibrated eclogites. Clinopyroxene-plagioclase inclusions in garnet of a garnet-clinopyroxene assemblage within a metagabbro indicate a temperature around 760–790 °C at a maximum pressure of about 19 kb. The units finally evolved together during stages of exhumation under metamorphic conditions ranging from the Barrovian-type (minimum age of 330 Ma) to the high-temperature/low-pressure type. The absolute age of the high-pressure stage and the eclogite protoliths is unknown. In comparison with other collision belts, it is likely that the gneiss units of the Median Dacides underwent a complete cycle of underthrusting and exhumation similar to other segments of the European Variscides, and that the formation of the eclogite occurred during the early stages of subduction.

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Résumé Les roches métamorphiques du socle pré-alpin des domaines Gétiques et Supragétiques (Dacides médianes de la chaîne des Carpathes) appartiennent à des unités lithotectoniques différentes dont certaines contiennent des reliques de métamorphisme haute pression reflétant un stade précoce de subduction continentale et océanique, localement synchrone de zones de cisaillement mylonitiques. Des éclogites é disthène-amphibole ± quartz permettent de reconstituer un trajet PT horaire complet. Les conditions paroxysmales sont estimées au sein de l'unité de Cumpana é plus de 20 kb pour 780–860 °C. Des phases magmatiques pré-éclogitiques coexistent avec des phases de haute pression dans les éclogites de certaines unités et des inclusions de clinopyroxene-plagioclase dans les grenats d'un métagabbro indiquent une température de 760–790 °C pour une pression maximale de 19 kb. L'ensemble des unités évolue finalement durant les stades d'exhumation sous les mêmes conditions de métamorphisme barrovien (âge minimum de 330 Ma) puis de haute température-basse pression. L'âge du stade de haute pression et des protholithes reste inconnu. En comparaison avec d'autres chaînes de collision, il est vraisemblable que les Dacides médianes ont subi un cycle d'enfouissement et d'exhumation similaire é celui décrit dans d'autres segments de la chaîne varisque européenne, la formation des éclogites étant attribuée aux premiers stades de la subduction.

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With 9 Figures     

Neoproterozoic basin evolution in Fennoscandia, East Greenland and Svalbard

Neoproterozoic successions of Fennoscandia, East Greenland and Svalbard are related to crustal extension and formation of sedimentary basins along the margins of northern Baltica （ Fennoscandia ） and eastern Laurentia （East Greenland and Svalbard）, preceding final break-up of Rodinia. The early rift stage （late Tonian-Cryogenian） is characterized by up to 16 km thick sedimentary successions of deep-marine sandstones and conglomerates linked to rift and strike-slip basins. Pericratonic basins expanded during Cryogenian-Cambrian coastal onlap. Cryogenian tropical climate is reflected by carbonate and evaporitic formations, most of which predate Cryogenian-Ediacaran glaciations. Glacial units, collectively referred to the Varanger Ice Age, may be equivalent to the Marinoan （c. 630 Ma） and the Gaskiers （c. 580 Ma） glacial periods. The final stage in break-up of Rodinia commenced with the emplacement of dolerite dyke swarms along the Baltoscandian margin at c. 600 Ma and the opening of the lapetus Ocean and other sea ways. No such dyke swarms have been recorded along the East Greenland segment of the Laurentian margin. Several Tonian-Cambrian tectonic and magmatic events recorded within the Kalak Nappe Complex in northern Finnmark make this unit an exotic terrane relative to the autochthonous Baltoscandian platform.     

Composition of the water accommodated fractions as a function of exposure times and temperatures

The water accommodated fractions (WAFs) of nine oils in seawater have been studied. The oils range from light condensate to heavy crude, and include one highly biodegraded oil and one very wax rich oil. This study has identified large variations in the chemical composition of WAFs, depending on oil type, temperature, and mixing time. Experiments at different temperatures (2-13 °C) showed that it takes longer time to reach equilibrium at the lowest temperatures, and that this varies for the different oil types. Oils with higher pour point (wax rich oils) need a longer time to establish WAF in equilibrium than oils with lower pour points (naphthenic oils). At 13 °C a mixing time of 48 h, as recommended in standard procedures, seems to be sufficient for asphalthenic and paraffinic oils. The results demonstrated that for WAF prepared from an unknown oil, or at lower temperatures, different mixing times should be tested. Since the WAF often is used in toxicity testing, the toxicity might be underestimated if the mixing time is too short.     

Towards constraining the magnitude of global agricultural sediment and soil organic carbon fluxes

Reliable quantitative data on the extent and rates of soil erosion are needed to understand the global significance of soil‐erosion induced carbon exchange and to underpin the development of science‐based mitigation strategies, but large uncertainties remain. Existing estimates of agricultural soil and soil organic carbon (SOC) erosion are very divergent and span two orders of magnitude. The main objective of this study was to test the assumptions underlying existing assessments and to reduce the uncertainty associated with global estimates of agricultural soil and SOC erosion. We parameterized a simplified erosion model driven by coarse global databases using an empirical database that covers the conterminous USA. The good agreement between our model results and empirical estimates indicate that the approach presented here captures the essence of agricultural erosion at the scales of continents and that it may be used to predict the significance of erosion for the global carbon cycle and its impact on soil functions. We obtained a global soil erosion rate of 10.5 Mg ha^‐1 y^‐1 for cropland and 1.7 Mg ha^‐1 y^‐1 for pastures. This corresponds to SOC erosion rates of 193 kg C ha^‐1 y^‐1 for cropland and 40.4 kg C ha^‐1 y^‐1 for eroding pastures and results in a global flux of 20.5 (±10.3) Pg y^‐1 of soil and 403.5 (±201.8) Tg C y^‐1. Although it is difficult to accurately assess the uncertainty associated with our estimates of global agricultural erosion, mainly due to the lack of model testing in (sub‐)tropical regions, our estimates are significantly lower than former assessments based on the extrapolation of plot experiments or global application of erosion models. Our approach has the potential to quantify the rate and spatial signature of the erosion‐induced disturbance at continental and global scales: by linking our model with a global soil profile database, we estimated soil profile modifications induced by agriculture. This showed that erosion‐induced changes in topsoil SOC content are significant at a global scale (an average SOC loss of 22% in 50 years) and agricultural soils should therefore be considered as dynamic systems that can change rapidly. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Geochemistry of Major Elements in a Pristine Boreal River System; Hydrological Compartments and Flow Paths

Once or twice weekly, water sampling was undertaken for a two and a half year period in the Kalix River, northern Sweden. Soil water, groundwater, water in tributaries and mire water were also sampled at several occasions. Samples were filtered and analysed for major dissolved elements and TOC. Although only 5 of the bedrock in the Kalix River drainage basin is situated in the Caledonian mountains (mostly schist, with some outcrops of dolomite and limestone), the chemical composition of the river, at the river mouth, is clearly influenced by water from the mountain areas. High dissolved Ca/Mg ratios in June and July indicate a large influence of water from the mountain areas during summer. The dissolved Si/Mg ratio increases when water from the woodland (bedrock consisting of Precambrian granitoids) predominates during snowmelt in May, but the ratio is low during summer when water from the mountains is increased. However, the low Si concentrations in the mountain areas are probably not primarily the result of the different rocks but more a reflection of the less intense weathering of silicate minerals in the mountains. High Si/Mg ratios are closely related to high TOC. All the major dissolved elements, except TOC, are diluted by snowmelt in May. However, the dilution varies for different elements. Based on the interpretations of major element ratios the melt water discharge in May reflects two major compartments in the woodland; peatland areas and the upper section of the soil. During summer and autumn storm events in the woodland most of the storm water originated from peatland. High K/Mg ratios in the river in May are related to water discharge from the upper section of the till. Low S/Mg ratios in the river indicate an influence of mire water from the woodland both during melt water discharge in May and during increased water discharge in autumn. The Ca/Mg ratios in tributaries in the woodland are consistently lower during melt water discharge compared with values in August. The lower Ca/Mg ratio in May probably reflects water that has been in contact with the B-horizon in the till during spring flood. Data show that the TOC discharged during spring flood originates from two major compartments in the landscape, the upper soil profile and peatland. Storm discharge of TOC during the rest of the year originates mostly from peatland.