Fracturing around radioactive minerals: elastic model and applications

A simplified mechanical model of a metamict crystal swelling in a host mineral shows that enough stress is generated in the host to trigger its failure and the appearance of radial fractures, in agreement with geological observations. The maximum stress, which combines radial compression and concentric tension, occurs along the host–inclusion interface and should create radial fractures. The maximum stress mainly depends on the amount of swelling, on the inclusion stiffness, and on the resistance to shearing of the host mineral. The external pressure, the host bulk modulus, and the inclusions/host radius ratio are parameters of minor relevance. The influence of the inclusion does not extend beyond about five times its radius. The application of published experimental data shows that a swelling metamict mineral may create significant fracturing in the host mineral. However, many parameters for both host and inclusion minerals are not available, even for the application of such a simple model. We think that in some circumstances, swelling of metamict mineral and fracturing of host mineral may significantly affect the physical properties of rocks at a larger scale by creating a network of fractures connecting metamict (i.e. uranium and thorium bearing) minerals to the geological environment.     

Geological context of the Boumnyebel talcschists (Cameroun): Inferences on the Pan-African Belt of Central Africa

The talcschists of the Boumnyebel area (southern Cameroon) form ≤ 30 m thick discontinuous layers within a Pan-African nappe unit (Yaoundé group), which includes, at the base, muscovite + biotite ± garnet micaschists associated with amphibolites and pyroxenites, and, at the top, muscovite + biotite + garnet + kyanite micaschists locally associated with marble and amphibolites. The metamorphic peak (∼650 °C/9.5 kbar; ca. 620 Ma) postdates nappe emplacement. Isograds are in normal position, micaschists passing downwards to migmatites in the northwestern part of the area studied. The rock types in the lower part of this nappe suggest active margin environments with detrital input from a nearby continental crust (arc or back-arc context).     

Structural reworking and heat transfer related to the late-Panafrican Angavo shear zone of Madagascar

The basement of central Madagascar displays two contrasted structural patterns. The first one (D1) is characterized by north-striking foliations that are gently dipping to the west and carry W- to WSW-plunging lineations, whereas the second one (D2) is characterized by steeper foliations that are striking to the NNE and lineations that are either subhorizontal or gently plunging to the SSW. The younger pattern is related to late-Panafrican tectonics along the major Angavo shear zone that is about 1000 km in length and 40 km in width with apparently little offset. Deformation in the Angavo zone induced interference folding on both sides. The D2 event is characterized by low pressures (ca 400 MPa) and high temperatures (up to 790 °C) responsible for prograde granulite facies conditions, that resulted from heat transfer due to magma and fluid advection in the Angavo shear zone. The D2 event is pinned at 550 ± 11 Ma by a new monazite age from a reoriented Andringitrean granite near Ankaramena. A new suite of amphibole and biotite Ar–Ar geochronological data enables to retrace the thermochronogical evolution inside and outside the Angavo shear zone. Combined with new structural results from the western interference zone, these ages yield a better understanding of the late-Panafrican history of central Madagascar. No diachronism is observed along the strike of the Angavo shear zone. Conversely, amphibole and especially biotite ages decrease from West to East, i.e. towards the shear zone. These new ages range from 511 to 469 Ma. A 1-D conductive model constrains the thermal effect in relation with the Angavo shear zone to be restricted to a lateral distance of ca 60 km (in map view) for a maximum heating duration of 20 Myr. This is in agreement with the Ar–Ar data and with the width of the observed interference zone. Following this episode of deformation and heat transfer, the estimated cooling rates of the Angavo shear zone range from to 15 to 6 °C/Myr, respectively before and after 515 Ma. A post-collision intracontinental setting is suggested for the Angavo shear zone, which is regarded as a remote effect of the Kuunga Orogeny between India and Antarctica.     

Earth and space-based NEO survey simulations: prospects for achieving the spaceguard goal

We have used an improved model of the orbit and absolute magnitude distribution of Near Earth Objects (NEOs) to simulate the performance of asteroid surveys. Our results support general conclusions of previous studies using preliminary Near Earth Asteroid (NEA) orbit and magnitude distributions and suggest that meeting the Spaceguard Goal of 90% completion for Near Earth Objects (NEOs) greater than 1 km diameter by 2008 is impossible given contemporary surveying capabilities.The NEO model was derived from NEO detections by the Spacewatch Project. For this paper we developed a simulator for the Catalina Sky Survey (CSS) for which we had a complete pointing history and NEO detection efficiency. The good match between the output of the simulator and the actual CSS performance gives confidence that both the NEO model and simulator are correct. Then, in order to determine if existing surveys can meet the Spaceguard Goal, we developed a simulator to mimic the LINEAR survey, for which detailed performance characteristics were unavailable. This simulator serendipitously provided an estimate for the currently undiscovered population of NEOs upon which we base all our estimates of time to 90% completion. We also developed a set of idealized NEO surveys in order to constrain the best possible survey performance in contrast to more realistic systems.A 100% efficient, all-sky, every night survey, subject only to the constraints of detection above a specified air mass and when the Sun is 18° below the horizon provides a benchmark from which to examine the effect of imposing more restrictions and the efficacy of some simple survey strategies. Such a survey must have a limiting V-magnitude of 20.1 ± 0.2 to meet the Spaceguard Goal.More realistic surveys, limited by latitude, the galaxy, minimum rates of NEO motion, etc., require fainter limiting magnitudes to reach the same completion. Our most realistic simulations, which have been normalized to the performance of the LINEAR detector system’s operation in the period 1999-2000, indicate that it would take them another 33 ± 5 years to reach 90% completeness for the larger asteroids (?1 km diameter). They would need to immediately increase the limiting magnitude to about 24 in order to meet the Spaceguard Goal.The simulations suggest that there may be little need for distributing survey telescopes in longitude and latitude as long as there is sufficient sky coverage from a telescope or network of telescopes which may be geographically close. An idealized space-based survey, especially from a satellite orbit much interior to Earth, would offer an advantage over their terrestrial counterparts. We do not consider a cost-benefit analysis for any of the simulations but suspect that a local-area network of telescopes capable of covering much of the sky in a month to V ∼ 21.5 may be administratively, financially, and scientifically the best compromise for reaching 90% completion of NEOs larger than 1 km diameter.     

Extension syn-convergence,poinçonnement vertical et unités métamorphiques contrastées en bordure ouest du Grand Paradis (Alpes Franco-Italiennes)

Résumé

À la bordure occidentale du massif du Grand Paradis (Alpes occidentales), la zone Piémontaise est constituée des unités océaniques des schistes lustrés et de l’unité continentale du Grand Paradis. Une étude métamorphique nous permet de préciser et de discuter des discontinuités de pression et des conditions de rétro-morphose de trois unités piémontaises déjà distinguées antérieurement. L’unité supérieure des schistes lustrés (LS) métamorphisée dans le faciès des schistes bleus (9.5 ± 2 kbar, 340 ± 30 °C). L’unité inférieure des schistes lustrés (LI) métamorphisée dans le faciès des éclogites (12.5±3 kbar, 480±50 °C). L’unité continentale du Grand Paradis (GP) métamorphisée dans le faciès des éclogites de plus haute pression (12 à 20 kbar, 500 ± 50 °C). L’ensemble des unités enregistre une décompression dans les conditions du faciès amphibolite à épidote, et donc avec une légère augmentation tardive de température, pour les unités LI et GP, et dans celles des schistes verts pour l’unité LS. L’étude des inclusions fluides dans les fentes de tension et dans les plans de cisaillement, en parallèle à l’élude des paragenèses rétromorphiques permet de montrer que c’est tardivement (4 ± 1 kbar, 400 ± 50 °C) que l’histoire tectonomélamor-phique devient commune à l’ensemble des unités. L’étude du champ de la déformation finie met en évidence une tectonique en extension qui débute en conditions ductiles dans le faciès amphibolite à épidote pour LI, et schiste vert pour LS, et se poursuit en conditions fragiles. La déformation ductile se traduit par des trajectoires en dômes et bassins de la foliation, avec une partition entre des domaines en aplatissement au c?ur des dômes et des domaines en cisaillement simple en bordure des dômes, au contact entre les différentes unités. La déformation fragile correspond au continuum plus tardif de la déformation extensive ductile. Cette tectonique extensive n’est qu’en partie responsable des sautes de pression entre les trois unités étudiés. Elle correspond à l’accommodation, en surface, au poinçonnement vertical des unités de haute pression, en contexte de convergence, par l’écaillage progressif de la croûte européenne à l’avant du butoir mantellique apulien. © 2000 Editions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS     

Dynamic scheme of water circulation in karstic aquifers as constrained by Sr and Pb isotopes. Application to the Hérault watershed,Southern France

This paper focuses on the relationship between the karst aquifers and the Hérault River (southern France) as a function of hydrologic conditions. The combination of major and trace element, and Sr and Pb isotopes determined on dissolved load in karstic springs makes it possible to identify a dynamic scheme of the hydrology of the karstic area.In the headwaters part of this area, the Sourcettes Spring is fed by an interrupted stream that infiltrates at the basement-sedimentary cover contact. Internal geochemical processes are also pointed out: (1) water–rock interactions during underground circulation, and (2) water originating from different layers of the aquifer may show different chemistry depending on the hydrological conditions. The Vernède Spring, is fed by a second water supply during high flows (previously considered as unconnected). Finally, the Cent-Fonts Springs have been confirmed to be fed by the Buège interrupted stream.Pb isotopes on the dissolved and particulate loads of the river samples make it possible to discriminate the natural (local rocks) versus anthropogenic (mining district and road traffic) Pb sources. The Pb isotope investigations on karstic water make it possible to differentiate between neighboring springs presenting identical Sr isotope and element ratios, and to point out different underground circulation.

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Resumen Este artículo trata de la relación río-acuífero kárstico en la cuenca de Hérault (Francia), en función de las condiciones hidrológicas. La combinación de elementos principales, elementos traza, e isótopos de estroncio y plomo en muestras de manantiales kársticos permite construir un esquema dinámico de la zona.El manantial de Sourcettes, en la parte alta de la región, está alimentado por una corriente interrumpida que se infiltra a través la cubierta sedimentaria del lecho. También, se apunta a los procesos internos geoquímicos: (1) interacciones roca-acuífero, (2) aguas procedentes de capas diferentes del acuífero, dependiendo de las condiciones hidrológicas. El manantial de Vernède, en el sector oriental de la cuenca, se nutre de una segunda fuente de agua en períodos de aguas altas, que anteriormente se consideraba desconenctada. Finalmente, se ha confirmado que los manantiales de Cent-Fonts captan las aguas del curso interrumpido del Buège.Los isótopos de plomo, tanto en fase disuelta como en suspensión de muestras de río, permiten discriminar entre orígenes naturales (rocas naturales) y antrópicos (minería y tráfico) de este elemento. Las investigaciones en aguas kársticas llevan a diferenciar entre manantiales vecinos que tienen relaciones de isótopos de estroncio idénticas, así como a proponer circulaciones distintas en el acuífero por drenaje o por mineralización no diseminada del plomo.

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Résumé Cet article s'intéresse à la relation entre le karst et une rivière dans le bassin de l'Hérault (France), en fonction des conditions hydrologiques. La combinaison des éléments majeurs, des traces et des isotopes de Sr et Pb déterminés dans la charge dissoute de sources karstiques permet de construire un schéma dynamique de la région karstique.Dans la partie la plus haute de cette région, la source des Sourcettes est alimentée par un cours d'eau qui s'infiltre au contact de la série sédimentaire sur le socle. Des processus géochimiques sont également mis en évidence: (1) des interactions eau-roche au cours du trajet souterrain, (2) de l'eau provenant de différents niveaux de l'aquifère en fonction des conditions hydrologiques. Dans la partie orientale du bassin, la source Vernède reçoit une seconde alimentation lors des fortes crues, précédemment considérée comme n'étant pas connectée. Finalement, on confirme que la source des Cent-Fonts est alimentée par les pertes de la rivière de la Buèges.Les isotopes du Pb dans les charges dissoute et solide des échantillons de rivières ont conduit à faire la distinction entre les sources naturelle (roches locales) et anthropique (mines et trafic routier). Les études sur les isotopes du Pb dans les eaux karstiques permettent de différencier les sources voisines présentant des rapports d'éléments et de signatures isotopiques du Sr identiques, et à distinguer différentes circulations souterraines drainant ou non des minéralisations disséminées de Pb.

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Flank spreading and collapse of weak-cored volcanoes

Volcanoes subjected to hydrothermal activity develop weak cores as a result of alteration and due to elevated pore pressures. Edifices constructed at the angle of repose of volcanoclastics, or at even more gentle slopes, respond to internal weakening by initially deforming slowly, but may then collapse catastrophically. Such a process has so far been described for only a few volcanoes, such as Casita, Nicaragua; however, the conditions for flank spreading are widespread and many, if not most volcanoes should suffer some alteration-related flank spreading. We provide analogue models that characterise the structure — surface deformation fields and internal structures — of a spreading flank. Deformation creates a characteristic concave-convex-concave flank profile producing structures such as basal thrusts, summit normal faults, grabens and strike-slip relay faults. Three deformation regimes are found: a pit collapse regime is associated with very small volumes of ductile material located far from the edifice surface. This would not appear in nature, as time for deformation is greater than the lifetime of a volcano, unless very low rock viscosities are present. The other two regimes are flank spreading regimes, one symmetric and one asymmetric. The latter is the most common, as most volcanic structures are asymmetrical in form and in distribution of physical properties. The deformation is controlled by altered region dimensions, volume and position relative to the edifice, and to a lesser extent by its shape. As the flanks spread, landslides are created, initially on the steepened portion, but also from fault scarps. Major flank collapse may occur leading to explosive hydrothermal decompression and to a debris avalanche rich in hydrothermally altered material. We provide several new examples of volcanoes that have structures and morphologies compatible with flank spreading. We suggest that it is a common feature, important in the tectonics and hazards of many volcanoes.Editorial Responsibility: J. Gilbert     

Zn and Cu isotopic variations in chondrites and iron meteorites: Early solar nebula reservoirs and parent-body processes

High-precision Zn isotopic variations are reported for carbonaceous chondrites (CC), equilibrated (EOC) and unequilibrated (UOC) ordinary chondrites, iron meteorites from the IAB-IIICD (nonmagmatic) and IIIA (magmatic) groups, and metal from the Brenham pallasite. For irons, δ⁶⁵Cu values are also reported. Data have also been obtained on a coarse-grained type-B calcium-, aluminum-rich refractory inclusion (CAI) from Allende and on acid leaches of Allende (CV3), Krymka (LL3), and Charsonville (H6). Variations expressed as δ⁶⁶Zn (deviation in parts per thousand of ⁶⁶Zn/⁶⁴Zn in samples relative to a standard) spread over a range of 0.3‰ for carbonaceous chondrites, 2‰ for ordinary chondrites, and 4‰ for irons.The measured ⁶⁶Zn/⁶⁴Zn, ⁶⁷Zn/⁶⁴Zn, and ⁶⁸Zn/⁶⁴Zn ratios vary linearly with mass difference and define a common isotope fractionation line with terrestrial samples, which demonstrates that Zn was derived from an initially single homogeneous reservoir. The δ⁶⁶Zn values are correlated with meteorite compositions and slightly decrease in the order CI, CM, CV-CO, and to UOC. The isotopically light Zn of Allende CAI and the acid-resistant residues of Allende and Krymka show that the light component is associated with refractory material, presumably minerals from the spinel-group. This, together with the reverse correlation between relative abundances of light Zn isotopes and volatile element abundances, suggests that Zn depletion in planetary bodies with respect to CI cannot be ascribed to devolatilization of CI-like material. These observations rather suggest that refractory material reacted with a gas phase enriched in the lighter Zn isotopes. Alternatively, chondrules with their associated rims should carry a light Zn isotopic signature. The δ⁶⁶Zn values of unequilibrated chondrites are rather uniform, whereas equilibrated chondrites show distinctly more isotopic variability.The values of δ⁶⁵Cu-δ⁶⁶Zn in irons define two trends. The moderate and positively correlated Cu and Zn isotope variations in IIIA and pallasite samples probably reflect crystallization of silicate, sulfide, and solid metal from the liquid metal. The range of δ⁶⁶Zn values of the IAB-IIICD group is large (>3‰) and contrasts with the moderate fractionation of Cu isotopes. We interpret this feature and the negative δ⁶⁶Zn-δ⁶⁵Cu correlation as reflecting mixing, possibly achieved by percolation, between metals from a regolith devolatilized at low temperature (enriched in heavy zinc) and metallic liquids formed within the parent body.