Occurrence and distribution of tetraether membrane lipids in soils: Implications for the use of the TEX86 proxy and the BIT index

A diverse collection of globally distributed soil samples was analyzed for its glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (GDGT) membrane lipid content. Branched GDGTs, derived from anaerobic soil bacteria, were the most dominant and were found in all soils. Isoprenoid GDGTs, membrane lipids of Archaea, were also present, although in considerably lower concentration. Crenarchaeol, a specific isoprenoid membrane lipid of the non-thermophilic Crenarchaeota, was also regularly detected and its abundance might be related to soil pH. The detection of crenarchaeol in nearly all of the samples is the first report of this type of GDGT membrane lipid in soils and is in agreement with molecular ecological studies, confirming the widespread occurrence of non-thermophilic Crenarchaeota in the terrestrial realm. The fluvial transport of crenarchaeol and other isoprenoid GDGTs to marine and lacustrine environments could possibly bias the BIT index, a ratio between branched GDGTs and crenarchaeol used to determine relative terrestrial organic matter (TOM) input. However, as crenarchaeol in soils is only present in low concentration compared to branched GDGTs, no large effect is expected for the BIT index. The fluvial input of terrestrially derived isoprenoid GDGTs could also bias the TEX₈₆, a proxy used to determine palaeo surface temperatures in marine and lacustrine settings and based on the ratio of cyclopentane-containing isoprenoid GDGTs in marine and lacustrine Crenarchaeota. Indeed, it is shown that a substantial bias in TEX₈₆-reconstructed sea and lake surface temperatures can occur if TOM input is high, e.g. near large river outflows.     

Environmental controls on bacterial tetraether membrane lipid distribution in soils

Over the last years a novel group of branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether (GDGT) membrane lipids has been discovered in peat bogs and soils. They consist of components with 4-6 methyl groups attached to the n-alkyl chains and 0 to 2 cyclopentyl moieties in the alkyl chain. These branched membrane lipids are produced by an as yet unknown group of anaerobic soil bacteria. In this study we analysed the branched membrane lipid content of 134 soil samples from 90 globally distributed locations to study the environmental factors controlling the relative distribution of the different branched GDGT isomers. Our results show that the relative amount of cyclopentyl moieties, expressed in the cyclisation ratio of branched tetraethers (CBT), is primarily related to the pH of the soil (R² = 0.70) and not to temperature (R² = 0.03). The relative amount of methyl branches, expressed in the methylation index of branched tetraethers (MBT), is positively correlated with the annual mean air temperature (MAT) (R² = 0.62) and, to a lesser extent, negatively correlated with the pH of the soil (R² = 0.37). If both parameters are combined, however, it appears that the variation in the MBT is largely explained by both MAT and pH (R² = 0.82). These results suggest that the relative distribution of soil-derived GDGT membrane lipids can be used in palaeoenvironmental studies to estimate past annual MAT and soil pH.     

Compositional Kriging: A Spatial Interpolation Method for Compositional Data

Compositional data are very common in the earth sciences. Nevertheless, little attention has been paid to the spatial interpolation of these data sets. Most interpolators do not necessarily satisfy the constant sum and nonnegativity constraints of compositional data, nor take spatial structure into account. Therefore, compositional kriging is introduced as a straightforward extension of ordinary kriging that complies with these constraints. In two case studies, the performance of compositional kriging is compared with that of the additive logratio-transform. In the first case study, compositional kriging yielded significantly more accurate predictions than the additive logratio-transform, while in the second case study the performances were comparable.     

A diatomaceous origin for long-chain diols and mid-chain hydroxy methyl alkanoates widely occurring in quaternary marine sediments: indicators for high-nutrient conditions

For the first time a biological source for the long-chain alkyl 1,14-diols and 12-hydroxy methyl alkanoates, lipids widely occurring in the marine water column and sediments, has been identified. Cultures of Proboscia indica and Proboscia alata, rhizosolenoid diatoms belonging to the widespread diatom genus Proboscia, contain C₂₈, C_28:1, C₃₀, and C_30:1 alkyl 1,14-diols, and C₂₇ and C₂₉ 12-hydroxy methyl alkanoates as major neutral lipids. These components form a substantial fraction of lipid fractions from sediment traps or sediments, especially in areas with an elevated primary production such as upwelling regions. Examination of literature data reveals that as much as 20 to 35% of the total lipid flux in the Arabian Sea is derived from Proboscia diatoms during the start of the upwelling season. Their rapid transfer to the water-sediment interface may explain why corresponding 1,14-keto-ols, inferred oxidation products of diols, are hardly formed. These interpretations are supported by compound-specific carbon isotopic analysis of long-chain keto-ols and diols in surface sediments of the Arabian Sea. The data indicate that long-chain alkyl 1,14-diols and 12-hydroxy methyl alkanoates can be applied as indicators for high-nutrient conditions in the photic zone.     

A molecular and carbon isotope biogeochemical study of biomarkers and kerogen pyrolysates of the Kimmeridge Clay Facies: palaeoenvironmental implications

Structures and carbon isotopic compositions of biomarkers and kerogen pyrolysis products of a dolomite, a bituminous shale and an oil shale of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation (KCF) in Dorset were studied in order to gain insight into (i) the type and extent of water column anoxia and (ii) changes in the concentration and isotopic composition of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the palaeowater column. The samples studied fit into the curve of increasing δ¹³C of the kerogen (δ¹³C_TOC) with increasing TOC, reported by Huc et al. (1992). Their hypothesis, that the positive correlation between TOC and δ¹³C_TOC is the result of differing degrees of organic matter (OM) mineralisation in the water column, was tested by measuring the δ¹³C values of primary production markers. These δ¹³C values were found to differ on average by only 1‰ among the samples, implying that differences in the extent of OM mineralisation cannot fully account for the 3‰ difference in δ¹³C_TOC. The extractable OM in the oil shale differs from that in the other sediments due to both differences in maturity, and differences in the planktonic community. These differences, however, are not likely to have significantly influenced δ¹³C_TOC either. All three sediments contain abundant derivatives of isorenieratene, indicating that periodically euxinia was extending into the photic zone. The sediments are rich in organic sulfur, as revealed by the abundant sulfur compounds in the pyrolysates. The prominence of C₁-C₃ alkylated thiophenes over n-alkanes and n-alkenes is most pronounced in the pyrolysate of the sediment richest in TOC. This suggests that sulfurisation of OM may have played an important role in determining the TOC-δ¹³C_TOC relationship reported by Huc et al. (1992).     

Selective preservation of soil organic matter in oxidized marine sediments (Madeira Abyssal Plain)

In ocean margin sediments both marine and terrestrial organic matter (OM) are buried but the factors governing their relative preservation and degradation are not well understood. In this study, we analysed the degree of preservation of marine isoprenoidal and soil-derived branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs) upon long-term oxygen exposure in OM-rich turbidites from the Madeira Abyssal Plain by analyzing GDGT concentrations across oxidation fronts. Relative to the anoxic part of the turbidites ca. 7-20% of the soil-derived branched GDGTs were preserved in the oxidized part while only 0.2-3% of the marine isoprenoid GDGT crenarchaeol was preserved. Due to these different preservation factors the Branched Isoprenoid Tetraether (BIT) index, a ratio between crenarchaeol and the major branched GDGTs that is used as a tracer for soil-derived organic matter, substantially increases from 0.02 to 0.4. Split Flow Thin Cell (SPLITT) separation of turbidite sediments showed that the enhanced preservation of soil-derived carbon was a general phenomenon across the fine particle size ranges (<38 μm). Calculations reveal that, despite their relatively similar chemical structures, degradation rates of crenarchaeol are 2-fold higher than those of soil-derived branched GDGTs, suggesting preferential soil OM preservation possibly due to matrix protection.     

Distribution of the aphid Hyalopterus pruni Geoffr. within and between habitats of Common Reed Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel as a result of migration and population growth

The aphid Hyalopterus pruni migrates to its secondary host Common Reed in late spring and early summer. Reed fields are known to be more heavily infested at the edges compared to the centre, as the migrants are attracted to the colour of the reed. There is also evidence that reeds growing at wet sites are more heavily infested than at dry sites. This paper shows that both proceses interact in determining the distribution of aphids in different habitats.The observations were carried out in the vast reed field of the Zuidelijk Flevoland polder (The Netherlands) during a number of years after its reclamation in 1968. In the period of migration flying aphids were caught with sticky traps situated in and around the reed field. The distribution of aphids on the reed was determined at different times during the season along transects through the centre of the polder. The existence early in the season (June) of a higher infestation at the edges than in the centre of the field was confirmed. The density of winged aphids in this early period was higher in wet than in dry habitats, which may have been a result of a preference of the settling migrants for reed standing in water. Later in the season (August) the dry habitat still had a relatively low infestation in the centre, but at the wet sites the infestation was high everywhere. This could be attributed to the much quicker population growth that was found in the wet habitat and subsequent short range movement of newly born winged aphids.