New coelacanth material from the Middle Triassic of eastern Switzerland, and comments on the taxic diversity of actinistans

New coelacanth material from the Middle Triassic Prosanto Formation of the Ducan and Landwasser area near Davos in eastern Switzerland, Canton Graubünden, is described. A sub-complete individual is visible in ventral view, and shows details of its branchial apparatus. In particular, it possesses relatively large teeth on the ceratobranchials, and possible ossified hypobranchials. Few diagnostic characters are observable, and most of them are visible on the mandibles preserved in lateral view. This specimen shares characters with Ticinepomis peyeri, a smaller form from the Middle Triassic of Monte San Giorgio, whose holotype is re-described in part here. A second specimen, a fragmentary caudal skeleton shows the typical supplementary lobe of coelacanths, and meristic characters indicating probable close affinities with T. peyeri. We refer this material to Ticinepomis cf. T. peyeri. Because the new specimen is larger than the holotype, we refute the possible juvenile status of the small specimen from Monte San Giorgio. The new material of Ticinepomis from Canton Graubünden shows anatomical features not preserved on the holotype and allows the addition of new characters to a previously published data matrix of actinistians. A phylogenetic analysis is performed, which supports that Ticinepomis is nested among the Latimeriidae. The diversity of post-Palaeozoic coelacanths is assessed. The taxic diversity of observed occurrences shows a peak in the Early Triassic and a peak in the Late Jurassic, as detected in previous studies. When ghost lineages are included in the computation, the Late Jurassic peak is smoothened. By comparing the taxic diversity curves with the curve of average ghost lineage duration, we conclude that the Early Triassic peak of diversity was probably caused by a biological radiation, whereas the Late Jurassic peak of observed diversity is probably the result of a Lagerstätten effect.     

Modification of climate signals by human activities recorded in varved sediments (AD 1608–1942) of Lake Holzmaar (Germany)

Paleolimnological data from varved sediments in Lake Holzmaar (Eifel, Germany) were combined with documentary data on human activities, long-term data from the Historical Climate Database (HISKLID) for Germany and with recent monitoring data to evaluate changes in deposition that arose from climatic and human influences. The sediment data included seasonal layer thickness in an established varve chronology (1608–1942 AD), subannual chemical element counts, and multiannual organic matter data (TOC, TN, δ¹³C_org), all combined on an annual scale. Indicators for detritus deposition (lithogenic element counts and detritus layers) determined the first principal component (PC1) of the sediment data. This detritus PC1 was compared to the first PCs of the seasonal precipitation and temperature from HISKLID. While no relation was found to precipitation, the correlation with the temperature PC1 determined by spring to fall temperatures was significant. From 1608 to 1870, a positive correlation of the PCs suggests an increase of detritus deposition in the lake center with increasing non-winter temperatures. These may be linked by lake-internal sediment redeposition that increases when the periods of winter stratification become shorter and that of lake circulation longer. The detritus deposition is modulated by external detritus input depending on the intensity of erosion-conducive land use (wood pasture, wood cutting, and rotational slash-and-burn cultivation). Detritus input diminished when land use slowed down with population decrease as the consequence of plague epidemics, warfare and emigration. After 1870, forest regeneration and improving agricultural practices led to a stabilization of the catchment. Erosion and detritus deposition decreased progressively. The negative correlation of detritus deposition with the gradually increasing temperature presumably mimics a cause-effect relation, although a link with decreasing freeze–thaw action is possible. The modernization of agriculture proceeded with manuring and fertilizing, which caused an increase of lake productivity as indicated by summer blooms of diatoms with enhanced nutrient demand, increased δ¹³C_org values and sulfur concentrations. Within this well established data base we found combinations of criteria that may be used to deduce natural climatic or anthropogenic influences. The quantitative attribution of these influences remains a challenging task in paleolimnology because their interaction makes the detection of linking mechanisms difficult even at high degree of detail and the processes themselves remain debatable.     

A Comparative Study of Different Approaches for Factor of Safety Calculations by Shear Strength Reduction Technique for Non-linear Hoek–Brown Failure Criterion

The shear strength reduction technique is becoming more and more popular to determine the factor-of-safety for geotechnical constructions, especially for slopes. At present, two in principal different procedures are used to apply the numerical shear strength reduction technique for materials characterised by non-linear failure envelopes, like the Hoek–Brown criterion. One procedure is based on the determination on local stress and strength values, whereas the other is based on a global linearization of the non-linear failure envelope. This article shortly describes and discusses these two different procedures and compares results for a broad spectrum of parameter constellations based on slope stability calculations. The local approach is physically more correct. The global approach can be considered as a first approximation. A comparison of both methods reveal that the global approach in comparison to the local approach, can leads to a deviation of up to 15?% in both directions. If one considers the local approach as the ‘correct’ one, depending on the parameters the results of the global approach can lie on the safe or unsafe site. The practical conclusion is that evaluation of slope stability using the global approach can result in uneconomic slope design or overestimation of safety margin. The use of the local approach instead of the global should be preferred. In case of small safety margins (e.g. 20?% or less) the use of the local approach is strictly recommended.     

The GRO 95577 CR1 chondrite and hydration of the CR parent body

Abstract— We carried out a petrologic and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) whole chondrite compositional study of Grosvenor Mountains (GRO) 95577. GRO 95577 has many petrological similarities to the CR chondrites. Although the INAA data show patterns indicative of terrestrial weathering, some of the elemental abundances are consistent with a relationship to CR chondrites. The oxygen isotopic composition of GRO 95577 plots close to the Renazzo CR chondrite on the three‐isotope diagram. However, GRO 95577 is remarkable in that the chondrules are completely hydrated, consisting almost entirely of phyllosilicates, magnetite, and sulfides. Although GRO 95577 is completely hydrated, the initial chondrule textures are perfectly preserved. The chondrules are in sharp contact with the matrix, their fine‐grained rims are clearly visible, and the boundaries of the dark inclusions can be easily discerned. Many chondrules in GRO 95577 have textures suggestive of type I chondrules, but the phenocrysts have undergone perfect pseudomorphic replacement by yellow to brownish serpentine‐rich phyllosilicate, with sharp original crystal outlines preserved. The chondrule mesostasis is a green aluminous chlorite‐rich material, most likely a hydration product of the feldspathic mesostasis commonly found in anhydrous type I chondrules. Some chondrules contain magnetite spheres, most likely formed by oxidation of metal. We propose that GRO 95577 be classified as a CR1 chondrite, making it the first known CR1 chondrite and expanding the range of alteration conditions on the CR parent body.     

The provenance of Australian uranium ore concentrates by elemental and isotopic analysis

Elemental and isotopic ratio analyses of U ore concentrate samples, from the 3 operating U mining facilities in Australia, were carried out to determine if significant variations exist between their products, thereby allowing the U ore concentrate’s origin to be identified. Elemental analyses were conducted using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). Lead isotope ratios were measured using ICP-MS and U isotope analyses were conducted using thermal ionisation mass spectrometry (TIMS). Minute quantities of sample, such as that obtained from a swipe, were also examined for elemental concentrations using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). The results of multivariate statistical analysis show clear patterns in the trace elemental composition of the processed U ores, indicating that it is possible to use this feature as a unique identifier of an Australian U ore concentrate’s source. Secondary ion mass spectrometry analyses also allow individual particles to be differentiated using this ‘fingerprinting’ technique. Isotope ratios determined using TIMS reveal that there is a significant difference in the n(²³⁴U)/n(²³⁸U) isotope ratio between the U ore concentrate from each mine.     

Composition of organic matter in subducted and unsubducted sediments off the Nicoya peninsula, Costa Rica (ODP Leg 170, Sites 1039 and 1040)

Investigation of sediment samples from Sites 1039 and 1040 (ODP Leg 170) drilled off the Nicoya peninsula (Costa Rica) by organic geochemical and organic petrological methods has revealed that subduction has only little influence on the composition of the sedimentary organic matter. Organic carbon contents reached 1.5% in the Pleistocene samples but Miocene and Pliocene sediments had an average organic carbon content of less than 0.5%. Organic carbon/sulfur ratios are generally below 2.8, reflecting an intense sulfate reduction in the uppermost sediments which was enhanced by sulfate supply both from sea water and deeper strata. Microscopical examinations indicate that the organic matter is mainly derived from marine sources. A small amount of terrigenous organic matter is, however, present as well according to n-alkane and fatty acid distributions. The alkenone unsaturation index U₃₇^k′ shows only a slight decrease during the Miocene and Pliocene, and stronger variations in the Pleistocene, probably indicating more stable sea surface temperatures during the Miocene and Pliocene. Variations in the Pleistocene can possibly be related to glacial/interglacial changes.     

Über die Grenzen der Genauigkeit bei Echolotungen in ozeanischen Seeräumen

Zusammenfassung Zur quantitativen Bestimmung der Grenzen der Genauigkeit bei Echolotungen in ozeanischen Seeräumen werden nacheinander der Einflu\ der regionalen Generalisierung der Mittelwerte der Schallgeschwindigkeit, der Einflu\ der Richtcharakteristiken der Schallstrahler und -empfänger sowie der Einflu\ der Laufzeitmessung und Registriergenauigkeit von Schallimpulsen physikalisch untersucht. Da die auf einer ozeanographischen Station gemessene Abhängigkeit der Temperatur des Seewassers von der Tiefe sich mit ausreichender Genauigkeit alse-Funktion approximieren lie\, also analytisch in geschlossener Form vorlag, konnten die zur Berechnung der mittleren Schallgeschwindigkeiten erforderlichen Integrationen in Strenge durchgefÜhrt und aus den erhaltenen Ergebnissen die Lotfehler, die infolge der regionalen Generalisierung fÜr diese Station zu erwarten sind, bestimmt werden. Sie betragen bei 5000 m Tiefe etwa 25 m. Wesentlich grö\ere Fehler können bei Echolotungen Über unregelmä\ig verlaufendem Meeresboden infolge des Einflusses der Richtcharakteristiken der Schallschwinger entstehen. Das Kriterium fÜr das Auftreten solcher Fehllotungen wird angegeben. Bei der quantitativen Untersuchung der Genauigkeit der Laufzeitmessung und Registrierung von Schallimpulsen wird schlie\lich festgestellt, da\ der inzwischen erreichte hohe Stand der Lotgeräte-Technik vielfach gar nicht benötigt wird. Die wesentlich gesteigerte Ablesegenauigkeit bei der Registrierung von Echotiefen sollte keinesfalls dazu verleiten, allzu hohen Genauigkeitsangaben ein Übermä\ig gro\es Gewicht in bezug auf ihre Realität zuzubilligen, da diese oft schon durch die blo\e Anwendung des Echolot-Verfahrens wegen der ihm anhaftenden unvermeidlichen Fehler in Frage gestellt ist.

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On the limits of accuracy of echo soundings in ocean regions

Summary With a view to determine the limits of accuracy of echo soundings in ocean regions, the effect of regionally generalized mean values of sound velocity and of the directional diagrams of acoustic radiators and-receivers as well as the influence exercised by measuring the echo running time and the recording accuracy of sound impulses are, one after the other, made the subject of physical investigations. As according to observations at an oceanographic station, the dependency on depth of sea-water temperature could, with sufficient accuracy, be defined by approximation as ane-function —and, hence, was available in an analytically closed form—it was possible to carry out the integrations, necessary for calculating the mean sound velocities, in a rigorous way. The results thus obtained allowed to determine the sounding errors expected to occur at this station owing to the regional generalization of mean values. At a depth of 5000 m the error amounts to about 25 m. Caused by the effect of the directional diagrams of sound vibrators, there may occur essentially greater errors when echo soundings are carried out across irregular ocean floors. The criterium for the occurrence of such faulty soundings is stated. The quantitative investigations of the accuracy with regard to the echo running time and to the record of sound impulses finally lead to the conclusion that in numerous cases there is no need to use sounding recorders of so high a degree of technical perfection as are available nowadays. The considerable advance in accuracy of reading sounding records does not permit to attach too much importance to statements of an exaggerated accuracy because of their inadequacy to reality. Such statements have often become doubtful on behalf of the inevitable errors already associated with the mere application of the echo sounding method.

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Sur les limites de prÉcision des sondages acoustiques en zones ocÉaniques

RÉsumÉ Dans le but de dÉterminer les limites de prÉcision des sondages acoustiques en zone ocÉanique, on soumet, l'un après l'autre, les sujets suivants à une Étude physique, c.a.d. l'effet exercÉ par la gÉnÉralisation rÉgionale des valeurs moyennes de la vitesse de son et par le diagramme de rayonnement des radiateurs et rÉcepteurs acoustiques, ainsi que l'effet de la mesure de la durÉe de propagation de l'impulsion et celui de la prÉcision d'enregistrement des impulsions acoustiques. Comme, suivant les observations faites à une station ocÉanographique, la dÉpendance de la profondeur de la tempÉrature des eaux salines se laisse avec assez de prÉcision dÉfinir par approximation comme fonctione-se prÉsentant, donc, analytiquement sous une forme fermÉe — on peut effectuer rigoureusement les intÉgrations, nÉcessaires au calcul de la vitesse moyenne de son, et, de plus, on peut dÉduire des rÉsultats ainsi obtenus les erreurs de sondage, dont on doit tenir compte pour cette station à cause de la gÉnÉralisation rÉgionale. Cette erreur s'Élève à 25 m environ en cas de 5000 m de profondeur. Sous l'influence des diagrammes de rayonnement des vibreurs acoustiques, des erreurs plus graves peuvent se produire lors des sondages acoustiques en prÉsence de fonds accentuÉs de la mer. Le critÉrium par lequel on peut rÉvÉler la prÉsence d'un tel faux sondage est indiquÉ. Les Études quantitatives de la prÉcision de la mesure de la durÉe de propagation de l'impulsion et de celle de l'enregistrement des impulsions acoustiques montrent enfin que l'on peut souvent se dispenser des instruments d'enregistrement d'un tel haut degrÉ de perfection technique, comme il a ÉtÉ atteint aujourd'hui. L'amÉlioration sensible de la prÉcision dÉ l'enregistrement des sondages acoustiques ne permet pas d'attribuer trop d'importance aux indications de prÉcision excessive à cause de leur incompatibilitÉ à la rÉalitÉ, car de telles indications sont souvent douteuses par suite des erreurs inÉvitables, inhÉrentes au simple emploi de la mÉthode de sondage acoustique.

     

A study of the mass,momentum and energy budget of the atmosphere

Production and expenditure rates in the terrestrial budget of various air properties (mass of precipitable water and carbon dioxide, zonal and root mean square momentum, heat, and entropy) are studied. The discussion is based on graphs and diagrams which illustrate the global radiation and heat budget, dynamical energy forms and conversions, hydrologic and carbon dioxide cycles, and meridional cross sections of mass, momentum, heat, and entropy budget terms. A comparison of atmospheric property holdings with expenditure rates results in a fictitious interval of time required to annull the holdings. For momentum, precipitable water, and heat this interval of time has the order of magnitude of 10⁰, 10¹, and 10² days, respectively.

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Zusammenfassung Es werden die Einnahme- und Ausgabeposten beim terrestrischen Haushalt verschiedener Eigenschaften der Luft (Wasserdampf und Kohlensäure als Beispiele von Masseneigenschaften, ferner zonal-vektorieller und skalarer Impuls, Wärme und Entropie) untersucht. Die Diskussion wird durch graphische Darstellungen und Diagramme unterstützt, welche folgende Größen veranschaulichen: den globalen Strahlungs- und Wärmehaushalt, dynamische Energieformen und ihre Umwandlungen, Wasserkreislauf und Kohlensäurekreislauf, sowie Bilanzposten der Massen-, Impuls-, Wärme- und Entropiebilanz in Meridionalschnitten. Eine Vergleichung des Gehalts der Atmosphäre an verschiedenen Eigenschaften mit ihren Verlusten liefert ein fiktives Zeitintervall, in welchem die Reserven aufgebraucht würden, wenn kein Ersatz nachgeliefert würde; die Größenordnung dieses Zeitintervalles ergibt sich zu 10⁰, 10¹ und 10² Tagen für Impuls, Wasserdampf und Wärme.

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Résumé L'auteur étudie la production et la dépense dans le bilan terrestre des différentes propriétés de l'air (la vapeur d'eau et le dioxyde de carbone comme exemples de propriétés de masse, puis la quantité de mouvement zonale-vectorielle et scalaire, la chaleur et l'entropie). Des graphiques illustrent la discussion qui représentent les grandeurs suivantes: économie globale de la radiation et de la chaleur, formes dynamiques de l'énergie et leurs transformations, cycles hydrologique et du dioxyde de carbone, ainsi que les composantes du bilan des masses, de la quantité de mouvement, de la chaleur et de l'entropie en coupes méridionales. La comparaison du contenu des diverses propriétés dans l'atmosphère avec leurs pertes est fournie par un intervalle de temps fictif, pendant lequel les réserves seraient épuisées, au cas où leur renouvellement ferait défaut; l'ordre de grandeur de cet intervalle résulte à 10⁰, 10¹ et 10² jours respectivement pour la quantité de mouvement, la vapeur d'eau et la chaleur.

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With 8 Figures.     

Little-known brachiopods from the Cretaceous of the Helvetic realm of NE Switzerland (Alpstein) and W Austria (Vorarlberg)

Three species from different stratigraphical levels of the Cretaceous of the Helvetic Alps are described. (1) Rhynchonellid specimens from the upper Öhrli-Kalk (Öhrli Formation, Late Berriasian) of NE Switzerland (Alpstein) identified as Lamellaerhynchia heimi (Sulser 2008) [Rhynchonellida, Hemithiridoidea]. Its range appears to be limited to a small area of the carbonate platform of the northern Alpstein chain. Based on internal and external morphological criteria L. heimi differs from other species of Lamellaerhynchia, as well as from Burrirhynchia cf. sayni (Jacob & Fallot 1913), occurring in the younger carbonate platform of the Schrattenkalk Formation (Early Aptian). (2) Recently collected material in various localities of the Altmann Member (Tierwis Formation, Late Hauterivian to Early Barremian) in the Alpstein area identified as Oblongarcula cf. alemannica Owen 1977 [Terebratellidina, Laqueoidea]. This species is closely related or identical to O. alemannica of the North European Boreal province and gives a reference to the occurrence of the genus Oblongarcula in the Tethyan domain of the Alps. Partially silicified specimens enable in rare cases a direct access to internal structures after that they were exposed by an acid treatment. (3) Tulipina koutaisensis (Loriol 1896) [Terebratellidina, Kingenoidea], known from Aptian deposits in the central Caucasus of Georgia, has been recorded as a rare species in the Plattenwald-Bed (Selun Member of the Garschella Formation, Albian) of W Austria (Vorarlberg). The localised occurrence and the temporal gap between the Caucasian and the Helvetic T. koutaisensis suggest an east–west directed migration along the northern margin of the Tethys Ocean during the Early Cretaceous.     

Die Eisenmanganerze der Grube Dr. Geier bei Bingen/Rhein als Verwitterungsbildungen des Mangans vom Typ Lindener Mark

Zusammenfassung Die Eisenmanganerze der Grube Dr. Geier bei Bingen am Rhein/Westdeutschland gehören zu den Verwitterungslagerstätten des Mangans. Sie sind an mitteldevonische Dolomite einer isoklinalen Mulde gebunden, die von marinen Sanden des Oligozäns überlagert werden. Ihre Bildungsräume sind Dolinen des Dolomitkarstes. Die Anlage der Dolinen ist gebunden an die Verbreitungsbereiche massiger Dolomite sowie an Zonen starker tektonischer Beanspruchung, in denen sie sich durch Mischungskorrosion gebildet haben. Ihre Füllungen bestehen bis zu 50% aus unvererzten tertiären Feinsanden und Tonen. Die Eisenmanganerze mit einem durchschnittlichen Fe/Mn-Verhältnis von 2:1 entstanden aus deszendenten Verwitterungslösungen durch eine gegenseitige Ausfällung von Hydroxidsolen des Fe und Mn. Mineralogisch bestehen sie aus Muskovit (10–50%), Goethit (30–50%), röntgenamorphen Mn-Oxiden (20–30%) sowie Hartmanganerzkonkretionen (0–22%) aus Manganit und Polianit/Pyrolusit. Die Herkunft der Mn-führenden Verwitterungslösungen wird sowohl aus den benachbarten Tonschiefern als auch aus den Dolomiten angenommen.

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Tertiary manganese-ores of the Dr. Geier-Mine, near Bingen on the Rhine, were mined since 1840, and are genetically connected with the karst of middle Devonian dolomites. They show relations between the karst topography and their petrofacies and tectonic structures. Cavities, caverns, sinkholes and dolines depend on fractures, joint-sets (ac, okl, hol, hkl) and bedding planes of an isoclinal trough. These structures in the massive dolomites have been the waterways formed through-mixed corrosion during an uplift-period and under a warm climate in the Eocene and the Lower Oligocene. Clays, sands, brecciated slides and the ores are the fillings of dolines, which posess their greatest extension near strike-faults of the syncline. The ores are mixed iron-manganese ores with a proportion of Fe: Mn of 2:1. The clayish ore types contain variable amounts of muscovite (10–50%), goethite (30–50%), amorphous Mn-oxides (20–30%) and hard concretions of manganite and pyrolusite (0–22%). The genesis of the ores is explicable as a mixture of colloidal solutions of Fe- and Mn-hydroxides under oxidizing conditions of the karst-hydrography.