Incorporating variable source area hydrology into a curve-number-based watershed model

Many water quality models use some form of the curve number (CN) equation developed by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS; U.S. Depart of Agriculture) to predict storm runoff from watersheds based on an infiltration-excess response to rainfall. However, in humid, well-vegetated areas with shallow soils, such as in the northeastern USA, the predominant runoff generating mechanism is saturation-excess on variable source areas (VSAs). We reconceptualized the SCS–CN equation for VSAs, and incorporated it into the General Watershed Loading Function (GWLF) model. The new version of GWLF, named the Variable Source Loading Function (VSLF) model, simulates the watershed runoff response to rainfall using the standard SCS–CN equation, but spatially distributes the runoff response according to a soil wetness index. We spatially validated VSLF runoff predictions and compared VSLF to GWLF for a subwatershed of the New York City Water Supply System. The spatial distribution of runoff from VSLF is more physically realistic than the estimates from GWLF. This has important consequences for water quality modeling, and for the use of models to evaluate and guide watershed management, because correctly predicting the coincidence of runoff generation and pollutant sources is critical to simulating non-point source (NPS) pollution transported by runoff. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Diffuse Emission of Hydrogen from Poás Volcano,Costa Rica,America Central

We report the results of four soil H₂ surveys carried out in 2000–2003 at Poás volcano, Costa Rica, to investigate the soil H₂ distribution and evaluate the diffuse H₂ emission as a potential surveillance tool for Poás volcano. Soil gas H₂ contents showed a wide range of concentration from 0.2 to 7,059 ppmV during the four surveys. Maps of soil gas H₂ based on Sequential Gaussian Simulation showed low H₂ concentration values in the soil atmosphere (<0.7 ppmV) for most of the study area, whereas high soil gas H₂ values were observed inside the active crater of Poás. A significant increase in soil gas H₂ concentration was observed inside the active crater during 2001 and 2002 with respect to year 2000, followed by a decrease in 2003. The observed spatial and temporal variations of soil H₂ concentration have been well correlated with seismicity, microgravimetry and fumarolic chemistry changes which occurred during this study. These observations evidence changes in the shallow magmatic-hydrothermal system of Poás, and it might be related to a potential magmatic intrusion during the period 1998–2004. Therefore, monitoring diffuse H₂ emission of Poás has become an important geochemical tool for the monitoring of its volcanic activity.     

Numerical solution of the dam failure problem by the random choice method

A numerical solution of the dam failure problem as described by the one-dimensional shallow water equations is presented. The construction of the solution is based on the random choice method consisting in the superposition of locally theoretical solutions and sampling techniques. The search of the optimal sampling is performed through the application of the random choice method to the scalar wave equation. The dam failure problem is then solved and a comparison with the theoretical solution is presented. It is shown that the random choice method computes the bore with almost infinite resolution, represents exactly the constant state behind it and calculates the depression wave with great accuracy.     

Diffuse Component Spectra of Solar Active Regions at Submillimeter Wavelengths

Solar maps at 212 and 405 GHz obtained by the Solar Submillimetric Telescope (SST) show regions of enhanced brightness temperature, which coincide with the location of active regions. A statistical study of the radio emission from these active regions was performed for the first time at such high frequencies during 23 days on June and July 2002, when the atmospheric opacity was low. The brightest regions on the maps were chosen for this study, where the brightness excess observed varies from 3 to 20% above quiet Sun levels (i.e., 200–1000 K) at both wavelengths. Sizes of the regions of enhanced emission calculated at half the maximum value were estimated to be between 2′ and 7′. These sizes agree with observed sizes of active regions at other wavelengths such as Hα and ultraviolet. An important result is that the flux density spectra of all sources increase toward submillimeter frequencies, yielding flux density spectral index with an average value of 2.0. The flux density of the active region sources were complemented with that from maps at 17 and 34 GHz from the Nobeyama Radio Heliograph. The resulting spectra at all four frequencies were fit considering the flux density to be due to thermal bremsstrahlung from the active region. In the calculations, the source radius was assumed to be the mean of the measured values at 212 and 405 K. The effective temperatures of the radio emitting source, assumed homogeneous, obtained from this fit were 0.6–2.9 × 10⁴ K, for source diameters of 2′–7′.     

Holocene Paleohydrology and Paleoclimate at Treeline, North-Central Russia, Inferred from Oxygen Isotope Records in Lake Sediment Cellulose

Lake-water oxygen-isotope histories for three lakes in northern Russia, derived from the cellulose oxygen-isotope stratigraphies of sediment cores, provide the basis for preliminary reconstruction of Holocene paleohydrology in two regions along the boreal treeline. Deconvolution of shifting precipitation δ¹⁸O from secondary evaporative isotopic enrichment is aided by knowledge of the distribution of isotopes in modern precipitation, the isotopic composition of paleo-waters preserved in frozen peat deposits, as well as other supporting paleoclimatic information. These data indicate that during the early Holocene, when the boreal treeline advanced to the current arctic coastline, conditions in the lower Yenisey River region were moist compared to the present, whereas greater aridity prevailed to the east near the lower Lena River. This longitudinal moisture gradient is consistent with the suggestion that oceanic forcing (increased sea-surface temperatures in the Nordic Seas and reduced sea-ice cover) was a major contributor to the development of a more maritime climate in western Eurasia, in addition to increased summer insolation. East of the Taimyr Peninsula, large tracts of the continental shelf exposed by glacial sea-level drawdown may have suppressed maritime climatic influence in what are now coastal areas. In contrast, during the late Holocene the two regions have apparently experienced coherent shifts in effective moisture. The similarity of the records may primarily reflect reduced North Atlantic influence in the Nordic Seas and southward retreat of coastline in eastern Siberia, coupled with declining summer insolation.     

Characterisation of conduction phenomena in soils at the particle-scale: Finite element analyses in conjunction with synthetic 3D imaging

This paper describes an innovative method to characterise conduction parameters in geomaterials at the particle-scale. The technique is exemplified using 3D synthetic grain packing generated with discrete element approaches. This creates a geo-mechanically viable user-defined 3D granular image through which the particle skeleton and the corresponding pore network are constructed. Images are then imported into the finite element analyses to solve the governing equations of hydraulic and thermal conduction. Navier–Stokes equation is uniquely upscaled to Darcy’s law to assess hydraulic conductivity in soils, while a similar approach implements the Fourier equation to evaluate thermal conduction through grain chains and pore network. High performance computing is used to meet demanding numerical calculations of 3D meshed geometries. Packing density (i.e., porosity) and inter-particle contact areas are explored as variables to highlight the effects of pore volume and inter-particle contact condition in hydraulic and thermal conduction. This emerging technique allows not only characterising the macro-scale behaviour of conduction phenomena in soils but also quantifying and visualising the preferential and local conduction behaviour at the particle-scale. Laboratory measurements of hydraulic and thermal conductivities support numerically obtained results and validate the viability of the new methods used herein. This study introduces an alternative way to determine physical parameters of soils using emerging technology of rigorous numerical simulations in conjunction with 3D images, and to enable fundamental observation of particle-scale mechanisms of macro-scale manifestation.     

Alteration of benthic communities associated with copper contamination linked to boat moorings

Although copper (Cu) is an essential element for life, leaching from boat paint can cause excess environmental loading in enclosed marinas. The effects of copper contamination on benthic macrofaunal communities were examined in three San Diego Bay marinas (America's Cup, Harbor Island West and East) in Southern California, USA. The distribution of Cu concentration in sediments exhibited a clear spatial gradient, with hotspots created by the presence of boats, which in two marinas exceeded the effect range medium (ERM). Elevated sediment Cu was associated with differences in benthic assemblages, reduced species richness and enhanced dominance in America's Cup and Harbor Island West, whereas Harbor Island East did not appear to be affected. At sites without boats there were greater abundances of some amphipods such as the species Desdimelita sp., Harpinia sp., Aoroides sp., Corophium sp., Podocerus sp., bivalves such as Lyonsia californica, Musculista senhousia, Macoma sp., and polychaetes such as Diplocirrus sp. In contrast, at sites with boats, densities of Pseudopolydora paucibranchiata, Polydora nuchalis, Euchone limnicola, Exogone lourei, Tubificoides spp. were enhanced. The limited impact on Harbor Island East suggests not only lower Cu input rates and increased water flushing and mixing, but also the presence of adequate defense mechanisms that regulate availability and mitigate toxic impacts. At all three marinas, Cu in tissues of several macrobenthic species exhibited Cu bioaccumulation above levels found in the surrounding environment. The annelids Lumbrineris sp. and Tubificoides spp., and the amphipod Desdimelita sp. contained high levels of Cu, suggesting they function as Cu bioaccumulators. The spionid polychaetes Polydora nuchalis and Pseudopolydora paucibranchiata had much lower Cu concentrations than surrounding sediments, suggesting they function as Cu bioregulators. The macrobenthic invertebrates in San Diego Bay marinas that tolerate Cu pollution (e.g. P. nuchalis, P. paucibranchiata, Euchone limnicola, Typosyllis sp., Tubificoides sp.) may function as indicators of high‐Cu conditions, whereas the presence of Cu‐sensitive species (e.g. Podocerus sp., Aoroides sp., Harpinia sp., Macoma sp., Lyonsia californica) may indicate healthier conditions (less Cu‐stressed). Parallel responses by faunas of Shelter Island Yacht Basin, also in San Diego Bay, suggest potential for development of regional Cu contamination assessment criteria, and call for functional comparisons with other marinas and coastal water bodies.     

Studies of multiple stellar systems – IV. The triple-lined spectroscopic system Gliese 644

We present a radial velocity study of the triple-lined system Gliese 644 and derive spectroscopic elements for the inner and outer orbits with periods of 2.965 5 and 627 d. We also utilize old visual data, as well as modern speckle and adaptive optics observations, to derive a new astrometric solution for the outer orbit. These two orbits together allow us to derive masses for each of the three components in the system: M _A=0.410±0.028 (6.9 per cent), M _Ba=0.336±0.016 (4.7 per cent), and M _Bb=0.304±0.014 (4.7 per cent) M_⊙. We suggest that the relative inclination of the two orbits is very small. Our individual masses and spectroscopic light ratios for the three M stars in the Gliese 644 system provide three points for the mass–luminosity relation near the bottom of the main sequence, where the relation is poorly determined. These three points agree well with theoretical models for solar metallicity and an age of 5 Gyr. Our radial velocities for Gliese 643 and vB 8, two common proper motion companions of Gliese 644, support the interpretation that all five M stars are moving together in a physically bound group. We discuss possible scenarios for the formation and evolution of this configuration, such as the formation of all five stars in a sequence of fragmentation events leading directly to the hierarchical configuration now observed, versus formation in a small N cluster with subsequent dynamical evolution into the present hierarchical configuration.