Guided wave propagation in laterally varying media - II. Lg-waves in north-western Europe

Summary. Lg -wave observations at NORSAR from a sequence of explosions straddling the Central Graben in the North Sea, show that the phase is almost extinguished by passing through this structure. For models of the graben structure, based on seismic refraction experiments, with crustal thinning beneath a zone of thickened sediments, numerical modelling of Lg propagation shows very poor transmission. The inclusion of attenuation simulating the effects of scattering from faults and other complex structures further diminishes the transmittivity. The theoretical effect of a crustal pinch is to redistribute S energy over a wide range of groups velocities, a pattern that fits well with the observations.
Three components recordings at NORSAR of explosive charges fired in water covering a wide range of azimuths, show significant transverse components to the seismograms. The transverse energy builds up with travel time and for Lg is of the same order as the vertical component. These results are consistent with the theoretical prediction of progressive net transfer of energy from Rayleigh to Love modes as the wavetrain propagates through a three-dimensionally heterogeneous medium.     

VELOCITY DISPERSION OF SEISMIC WAVES*

In well velocity surveys made to calibrate Sonic (CV) Logs the calibration survey uses frequencies around 50 Hz whereas the Sonic Logging tool uses frequencies around 20 kHz. There thus exists the possibility of making a direct measure of velocity dispersion. In any one survey the disturbing factors, both instrumental and operational, will often mask any dispersive effect that might exist. Consequently this paper reports on a statistical analysis of the velocity differences resulting from calibration surveys and Sonic logs. Only Borehole Compensated Sonic Logs were used. Four areas were investigated: the North Sea, Abu Dhabi, Libya and Alaska. After rejecting logs and calibration records which were obviously in error there remained 424000 feet (about 130 km) of usable log distributed throughout 66 wells. The four areas were analysed separately and in no case was the estimated dispersion significantly different from zero. However, the mean values did correlate with lithology from (? 0.17 ± 0.18)% for the essentially carbonate section in Abu Dhabi to (+ 0.45 ± 0.25)% for the sand-shale section in Alaska, a positive sign meaning that the higher frequencies travelled faster. Except for Alaska the calibration surveys were made with a wall-clamp geophone, and for these areas amplitude measurements were made. After suitable corrections estimates of the absorption parameter Q were obtained. These varied from 20 to 200 with mean values of 63 for Libya, 70 for Abu Dhabi and 88 for the North Sea (excluding the Tertiary). If, as is usually assumed, the absorption mechanism is linear and is described by a Q which is independent of frequency, then these values would necessarily imply dispersion of several percent. As instanced above no such dispersion was observed. It is possible that the expected dispersion was compensated for by invasion of the mud filtrate into the borehole walls, but it is more likely that the absorption mechanism was substantially non-linear.     

Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits of ophiolite associations

Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in ophiolite complexes are usually attributed to the Cyprus type. They associate with basaltic volcanics that are formed in mid-ocean or back-arc spreading centers and much less frequently in intra-plate settings. The deposits are characterized by copper or copper-zinc ores that are enriched in Ni, Co, and in places Mn and As, but are very poor in Pb and demonstrate a low to moderate content of Ag and Au. Typically, the deposits are low to very low in ore and metal reserves. Cyprus-type deposits were irregularly distributed during geological history. The most ancient of them were formed in the Neoproterozoic, while the bulk of the deposits are Ordovician or Cretaceous in age. Their possible Paleoproterozoic analogues can be found in the Svecofennian belt (Outokumpu ore district), while modern ones are confined to the Explorer and Endeavour Ridges and southern segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge.     

Sources of dissolved REE in mountainous streams draining granitic rocks, Sierras Pampeanas (Córdoba, Argentina)

Stream waters draining granitic terrains from the highest part (850 to 2200 m a.s.l.) of Sierras Pampeanas (Córdoba, Argentina, ∼32°S, ∼65°W) were sampled in order to define sources and distribution of dissolved rare earth elements (REE), and to describe the geochemical processes that govern their mobility. The contribution of the regional granite to the dissolved REE pool in stream water is limited due to the physical conditions predominating in the area (i.e., steep slopes and semiarid climate). Therefore, precipitation is considered a seasonally significant source controlling REE concentration in stream water. Dissolved REE concentrations are inversely correlated with monthly precipitation and rainfall frequency. During the rainy season (i.e., the austral summer) REE concentrations in stream water are lower than during the dry season (i.e., austral winter). Such low concentrations reflect the balance between the REE input from precipitation and their removal by adsorption. In contrast, during the dry season, the longer residence time of water within fractures and colluvium determines an increased REE concentration in the base flow. Lower pH values also contribute to raise REE concentration through desorption from mineral surfaces.     

Chironomids as indicators of climate change: a 100‐lake training set from a subarctic region of northern Sweden (Lapland)

Multivariate numerical analyses (DCA, CCA) were used to study the distribution of chironomids from surface sediments of 100 lakes spanning broad ecoclimatic conditions in northern Swedish Lapland. The study sites range from boreal forest to alpine tundra and are located in a region of relatively low human impact. Of the 19 environmental variables measured, ordination by CCA identified mean July air temperature as one of the most significant variables explaining the distribution and the abundance of chironomids. Lossonignition (LOI), maximum lake depth and mean January air temperature also accounted for significant variation in chironomid assemblages. A quantitative transfer function was created to estimate mean July air temperature from sedimentary chironomid assemblages using weightedaveraging partial least squares regression (WAPLS). The coefficient of determination was relatively high (r² = 0.65) with root mean squared error of prediction (RMSEP, based on jack-knifing) of 1.13 °C and maximum bias of 2.1 °C, indicating that chironomids can provide useful quantitative estimates of past changes in mean July air temperature. The paper focuses mainly on the relationship between chironomid composition and July air temperature, but the relationship to LOI and depth are also discussed.     

P- and S-wave anisotropy of a synthetic sandstone with controlled crack geometryl1

A method is reported for the production of synthetic porous sandstones containing cracks of known dimensions and geometry with respect to the matrix. A synthetic sandstone was manufactured from Sand cemented with an epoxy glue. The cracks of known geometry were introduced into the material in the manufacturing stage, by emplacing thin metallic discs in the Sand-epoxy matrix. These discs were chemically leached out of the consolidated porous sandstone. Acoustic anisotropy. and shear-wave splitting were observed in the synthetic sandstones. For the dry sample the observed angular dependence of the P- and S- wave velocities (at 100 kHz) compares well, qualitatively, with the theoretical models of Hudson and of Thomsen. Quantitatively, however, the experimental data fits Hudson's model better. For the case of a saturated sample the experimental results are in excellent agreement with Thomsen's model. Hudson's model, on the other hand, predicts a different angular dependence for P-waves. This demonstrates that the concept of fluid transfer between cracks and the ambient porosity can be a significant process. The results reported here are from the first successful experiment in which the theoretical models were tested on a porous material containing a known crack geometry.