Tree root mounds and their role in transporting soil on forested landscapes

The growth and decay of tree roots can stir and transport soil. This is one process that contributes to the mass‐movement of soil on hillslope. To explore the efficiency of this process, we document the mounding of soil beside Ponderosa and Lodgepole pine trees in the forests that dominate the mid‐elevations of Colorado's Boulder Creek watershed. Mounds are best expressed around Ponderosa pines, reaching vertical displacements above the far‐field slopes of order 10–20 cm, fading into the slope by roughly 100 cm distance from the trunks with common diameters of 30 cm. Positive mounding occurs on all sides of trees on slopes, indicating that the mounding is not attributable to deflection of a creeping flow of soil around the tree, but rather to the insertion of root volume on all sides in the subsurface. Mounding is commonly asymmetric even on cross‐slope profiles. Significant variation in the mound sizes results in no clear relationship between tree diameter and root volume displaced. These observations motivated the development of a discrete element model of tree root growth using the LIGGGHTS model, in which grains we specified to be ‘root cells’ were allowed to enlarge within the simulated granular matrix. Mounding could be reproduced, with the majority of the vertical displacement of the surface being attributable to reduction of the bulk density due to dilation of the granular matrix during root enlargement. Finally, we develop a previous analysis of the role of roots in transporting soil during growth and decay cycles. We find that even in shallow soils, the root‐cycle can drive significant soil transport down forested montane slopes. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

中国城市分布特征及其影响因素

通过对221 BC-1911 AD年间中国城市分布特征及其影响因素的研究,发现：① 在整个研究阶段,中国城市分布的重心位于中东部地区,秦—唐时期重心向西南地区大幅移动,唐—元时期重心先东北方向移动后转向西南方向,元—清时期重心主要向北移动。以腾冲—瑷珲一线为界线分区研究发现,在整个研究阶段西部重心在南北及东西方向呈现出较大的波动趋势,东部重心呈现出与全国类似的运动轨迹。② 标准差椭圆分析表明全国及东西部地区城市分布经历了明显的分散—集聚—分散的变化趋势,其中西部地区最为明显。从城市分布的平均方向看,全国及东部地区具有一定的相似性,均以东北—西南为主要分布特征,西部地区是以西北—东南为主要分布特征。③ 从城市密度分布特征看,其空间连续性和自组织性不断加强且由空间相关性引起的结构性变异处于显著状态。从方向上来看,全方向上的均质化程度呈下降趋势,西北—东南方向各时期城市密度均质化程度相对较好,空间差异相对较小,而东—西方向差异最为明显。④ 分析不同时期城市设置的相关因素发现,221 BC-1911 AD年间,中国城市设置相对集中在地形平坦、气候适中且靠近河流及中心城市的地区。     

郑西客运专线湿陷性黄土区试验路堤的沉降观测与预测研究

郑西客运专线路堤工后容许沉降量为15 mm,湿陷性黄土区路堤地基处理的沉降控制是关键性技术难题,为此,选择湿陷性黄土代表性地段进行了不同地基处理措施路堤工程沉降观测试验研究。研究结果表明,路堤本体的压缩沉降量只有3 mm,并在路堤竣工后的15 d内趋于稳定,路堤沉降主要由地基沉降控制,而地基沉降则决定于3种不同地基处理措施层以下土层的沉降量大小。在沉降量大小、地基处理和浸水效果方面,22 m深湿陷性土层全部处理的柱锤冲扩桩区段最好,15 m深湿陷性土层的挤密桩区段较好,6 m深湿陷性土层的强夯区段最差,而且采取合理的防排水措施防止坡脚附近积水浸泡非常必要。采用双曲线法、三点法和Asaoka法预测结果的平均值作为路堤的最终沉降量,柱锤冲扩桩区段、挤密桩区段的路堤分别需要恒载预压5个月、8个月便可卸除荷载铺设无碴轨道,强夯区段路堤的预压荷载可能需要持续很长的时间。     

Culture techniques and growth characteristics of Dinophysis acuminata and its prey

The dinoflagellate Dinophysis acuminata Claparede & Lachmann is a toxic alga that causes diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. No Dinophysis species were maintained in culture for a long period of time until 2006 when Park successfully established D. acuminata in culture using a three-step feeding protocol in which the cryptophyte, Geminigera cryophila, is fed to Myrionecta rubra (=Mesodinium rubrum), a ciliate that is in turn fed to D. acuminata. In this paper, we present the details of culturing D. acuminata from the Northeastern United States. The protocols described herein can be adopted for laboratory studies of this species. The effects of temperature on the growth and ingestion rates of D. acuminata were also examined. The results show that D. acuminata growth rate was 0.23 /d at 10°C and 0.11 /d at 4°C when fed M. rubra prey. The maximum prey ingestion rate was 2.80 Dinophysis cell/d at 10°C, although the rate decreased slightly at 4°C. In overall, temperature showed a greater influence on growth rate of D. acuminata than on the ingestion rate under the study conditions, and the quantity of available food was also an important regulator to D. acuminata growth.     

珊瑚混凝土在海洋环境中氯离子扩散实验

采用自然扩散法研究了珊瑚混凝土在海水环境中的氯离子扩散特性,探讨了养护龄期、暴露时间和环境差异性对珊瑚混凝土表观氯离子扩散系数的影响。结果表明:随着暴露时间的延长,珊瑚混凝土的表观氯离子扩散系数呈幂指数衰减规律;且延长养护龄期可降低珊瑚混凝土的表观氯离子扩散系数;随着强度等级增加,混凝土的表观氯离子扩散系数降低。我国实际海洋工程中珊瑚混凝土结构的表观氯离子扩散系数比实验室条件要提高3个数量级。因此,适当延长养护时间、提高强度等级有助于延长珊瑚混凝土结构在海洋环境的服役寿命。     

西藏高原积雪覆盖空间分布及地形影响

利用2000-2014年MOD10A2积雪产品和数字高程模型DEM数据,以积雪覆盖率为指标,在分析西藏高原积雪空间分布特点的基础上,定量研究了高程、坡度和坡向等地形要素对高原积雪时空分布的影响。主要结论有：① 西藏高原积雪的空间分布差异显著,具有中东部念青唐古拉山和周边高山积雪丰富,覆盖率高,而南部河谷和羌塘高原中西部积雪少,覆盖率低的特点。② 海拔越高积雪覆盖率越高,积雪持续时间越长,年内变化越稳定。海拔2 km以下积雪覆盖率不足4%,海拔6 km以上覆盖率达75%。海拔4 km以下年内积雪覆盖呈单峰型分布特点,海拔越高,单峰型越明显;而海拔4 km以上则为双峰型,海拔越高,双峰型越明显。海拔6 km以下积雪覆盖率最低值出现在夏季,而6 km以上则出现在冬季。③ 总体上,高原地形坡度越高积雪覆盖率越高。不同坡向中,北坡积雪覆盖率最高,南坡最低,年内分布呈双峰型,而无坡向的平地积雪覆盖率要小于有坡向的山地,其年内变化呈单峰型分布特点。     

Rediscovering Signal Complexity as a Teleseismic Discriminant

We re-examine the utility of teleseismic seismic complexity discriminants in a multivariate setting using United Kingdom array data. We measure a complexity discriminant taken on array beams by simply taking the logarithm of the ratio of the P-wave coda signal to that of the first arriving direct P wave (β_CF). The single station complexity discriminant shows marginal performance with shallow earthquakes having more complex signatures than those from explosions or deep earthquakes. Inclusion of secondary phases in the coda window can also degrade performance. However, performance improves markedly when two-station complexity discriminants are formed showing false alarm rates similar to those observed for network m_b − M_s. This suggests that multistation complexity discriminants may ameliorate some of the problems associated with m_b – M_s discrimination at lower magnitudes. Additionally, when complexity discriminants are combined with m_b – M_s there is a tendency for explosions, shallow earthquakes and deep earthquakes to form three distinct populations. Thus, complexity discriminants may follow a logic that is similar to m_b – M_s in terms of the separation of shallow earthquakes from nuclear explosions, although the underlying physics of the two discriminants is significantly different.     

Poker flat radar observations of the magnetosphere–ionosphere coupling electrodynamics of the earthward penetrating plasma sheet following convection enhancements

The plasma sheet moves earthward (equatorward in the ionosphere) after enhancements in convection, and the electrodynamics of this response is strongly influenced by Region 2 magnetosphere–ionosphere coupling. We have used Poker Flat Advanced Modular Incoherent Scatter Radar (PFISR) observations associated with two relatively abrupt southward turnings of the IMF to provide an initial evaluation of aspects of this response. The observations show that strong westward sub-auroral polarization streams (SAPS) flow regions moved equatorward as the plasma sheet electron precipitation (the diffuse aurora) penetrated equatorward following the IMF southward turnings. Consistent with our identification of these flows as SAPS, concurrent DMSP particle precipitation measurements show the equatorial boundary of ion precipitation equatorward of the electron precipitation boundary and that westward flows lie within the low-conductivity region between the two boundaries where the plasma sheet ion pressure gradient is expected to drive downward R2 currents. Evidence for these downward currents is seen in the DMSP magnetometer observations. Preliminary examination indicates that the SAPS response seen in the examples presented here may be common. However, detailed analysis will be required for many more events to reliably determine if this is the case. If so, it would imply that SAPS are frequently an important aspect of the inner magnetospheric electric field distribution, and that they are critical for understanding the response of the magnetosphere–ionosphere system to enhancements in convection, including understanding the earthward penetration of the plasma sheet. This earthward penetration is critical to geomagnetic disturbance phenomena such as the substorm growth phase and the formation of the stormtime ring current. Additionally, for one example, a prompt electric field response to the IMF southward turnings is seen within the inner plasma sheet.     

A Holocene record of Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)-related hydrologic variability in Southern California (Lake Elsinore,CA)

High-resolution terrestrial records of Holocene climate from Southern California are scarce. Moreover, there are no records of Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) variability, a major driver of decadal to multi-decadal climate variability for the region, older than 1,000 years. Recent research on Lake Elsinore, however, has shown that the lake’s sediments hold excellent potential for paleoenvironmental analysis and reconstruction. New 1-cm contiguous grain size data reveal a more complex Holocene climate history for Southern California than previously recognized at the site. A modern comparison between the twentieth century PDO index, lake level change, San Jacinto River discharge, and percent sand suggests that sand content is a reasonable, qualitative proxy for PDO-related, hydrologic variability at both multi-decadal-to-centennial as well as event (i.e. storm) timescales. A depositional model is proposed to explain the sand-hydrologic proxy. The sand-hydrologic proxy data reveal nine centennial-scale intervals of wet and dry climate throughout the Holocene. Percent total sand values >1.5 standard deviation above the 150–9,700 cal year BP average are frequent between 9,700 and 3,200 cal year BP (n = 41), but they are rare from 3,200 to 150 cal year BP (n = 6). This disparity is interpreted as a change in the frequency of exceptionally wet (high discharge) years and/or changes in large storm activity. A comparison to other regional hydrologic proxies (10 sites) shows more then occasional similarities across the region (i.e. 6 of 9 Elsinore wet intervals are present at >50% of the comparison sites). Only the early Holocene and the Little Ice Age intervals, however, are interpreted consistently across the region as uniformly wet (≥80% of the comparison sites). A comparison to two ENSO reconstructions indicates little, if any, correlation to the Elsinore data, suggesting that ENSO variability is not the predominant forcing of Holocene climate in Southern California.