The Iberian Pyrite Belt: a mineralized system dismembered by voluminous high-level sills

The Iberian Pyrite Belt is a world-ranking massive sulphide province in which a reassessment of the palaeovolcanology has dramatically changed understanding of the source of metals and mechanism of ore formation. In the northern sector, the deposits are hosted by a sill–sediment complex in which more than 90% of the sills post-date the sulphide sheets. Because of a very high sill/sediment ratio, these late intrusions dominate the host succession and have severely disrupted the post-mineralization configuration thus obscuring the true genetic relationships. For example, some oxide deposits have been separated by hectometric sills from sulphide deposits they originally capped, creating seemingly totally independent mineralizing systems. In addition, stratiform sulphide sheets without underlying stockworks are not necessarily allochthonous. An early timing for the mineralization with respect to volcanism means that metals had to be predominantly sourced from the sedimentary basin and the continental crust below the volcanogenic sequence.     

Basalt generation at the Apollo 12 site,Part 1: New data,classification, and re-evaluation

Abstract— New data are reported from five previously unanalyzed Apollo 12 mare basalts that are incorporated into an evaluation of previous petrogenetic models and classification schemes for these basalts. This paper proposes a classification for Apollo 12 mare basalts on the basis of whole-rock Mg# [molar 100*(Mg/(Mg+Fe))] and Rb/Sr ratio (analyzed by isotope dilution), whereby the ilmenite, olivine, and pigeonite basalt groups are readily distinguished from each other. Scrutiny of the Apollo 12 feldspathic “suite” demonstrates that two of the three basalts previously assigned to this group (12031, 12038, 12072) can be reclassified: 12031 is a plagioclase-rich pigeonite basalt (Nyquist et al, 1979); and 12072 is an olivine basalt Only basalt 12038 stands out as a unique sample (Nyquist et al., 1981) to the Apollo 12 she, but whether this represents a single sample from another flow at the Apollo 12 site or is exotic to this site is equivocal. The question of whether the olivine and pigeonite basalt suites are co-magmatic is addressed by incompatible trace-element chemistry: the trends defined by these two suites when Co/Sm and Sm/Eu ratios are plotted against Rb/Sr ratio demonstrate that these two basaltic types cannot be co-magmatic. Crystal fractionation/accumulation paths have been calculated and show that neither the pigeonite, olivine, or ilmenite basalts are related by this process. Each suite requires a distinct and separate source region. This study also examines sample heterogeneity and the degree to which whole-rock analyses are representative, which is critical when petrogenetic interpretation is undertaken. Sample heterogeneity has been investigated petrographically (inhomogeneous mineral distribution) with consideration of duplicate analyses, and whether a specific sample (using average data) plots consistently upon a fractionation trend when a number of different compositional parameters are considered. Using these criteria, four basalts have been identified where reported analyses are not representative of the whole-rock composition: 12005, an ilmenite basalt; 12006 and 12036, olivine basalts; and 12031 previously classified as a feldspathic basalt, but reclassified as part of the pigeonite suite (Nyquist et al., 1979).     

A Numerical Study of Wind-Turbine Wakes for Three Atmospheric Stability Conditions

The effects of atmospheric stability on wind-turbine wakes are studied via large-eddy simulations. Three stability conditions are considered: stable, neutral, and unstable, with the same geostrophic wind speed aloft and the same Coriolis frequency. Both a single 5-MW turbine and a wind farm of five turbines are studied. The single-turbine wake is strongly correlated with stability, in terms of velocity deficit, turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) and temperature distribution. Because of the Coriolis effect, the wake shape deviates from a Gaussian distribution. For the wind-farm simulations, the separation of the core region and outer region is clear for the stable and neutral cases, but less distinct for the unstable case. The unstable case exhibits strong horizontal variations in wind speed. Local accelerations such as related to aisle jets are also observed, whose features depend on stability. The added TKE in the wind farm increases with stability. The highest power extraction and lowest power deficit are observed for the unstable case.     

The origin of young mare basalts inferred from lunar meteorites Northwest Africa 4734, 032, and LaPaz Icefield 02205

Northwest Africa (NWA) 4734 is an unbrecciated basaltic lunar meteorite that is nearly identical in chemical composition to basaltic lunar meteorites NWA 032 and LaPaz Icefield (LAP) 02205. We have conducted a geochemical, petrologic, mineralogic, and Sm‐Nd, Rb‐Sr, and Ar‐Ar isotopic study of these meteorites to constrain their petrologic relationships and the origin of young mare basalts. NWA 4734 is a low‐Ti mare basalt with a low Mg* (36.5) and elevated abundances of incompatible trace elements (e.g., 2.00 ppm Th). The Sm‐Nd isotope system dates NWA 4734 with an isochron age of 3024 ± 27 Ma, an initial ε_Nd of +0.88 ± 0.20, and a source region ¹⁴⁷Sm/¹⁴⁴Nd of 0.201 ± 0.001. The crystallization age of NWA 4734 is concordant with those of LAP 02205 and NWA 032. NWA 4734 and LAP 02205 have very similar bulk compositions, mineral compositions, textures, and ages. Their source region ¹⁴⁷Sm/¹⁴⁴Nd values indicate that they are derived from similar, but distinct, source materials. They probably do not sample the same lava flow, but rather are similarly sourced, but isotopically distinct, lavas that probably originate from the same volcanic complex. They may have experienced slightly different assimilation histories in route to eruption, but can be source‐crater paired. NWA 032 remains enigmatic, as its source region ¹⁴⁷Sm/¹⁴⁴Nd definitively precludes a simple relationship with NWA 4734 and LAP 02205, despite a similar bulk composition. Their high Ti/Sm, low (La/Yb)_N, and Cl‐poor apatite compositions rule out the direct involvement of KREEP. Rather, they are consistent with low‐degree partial melting of late‐formed LMO cumulates, and indicate that the geochemical characteristics attributed to urKREEP are not unique to that reservoir. These and other basaltic meteorites indicate that the youngest mare basalts originate from multiple sources, and suggest that KREEP is not a prerequisite for the most recent known melting in the Moon.     

Source subtraction for the extended Very Small Array and 33-GHz source count estimates

We describe the source subtraction strategy and observations for the extended Very Small Array (VSA), a cosmic microwave background interferometer operating at 33 GHz. A total of 453 sources were monitored at 33 GHz using a dedicated source subtraction baseline. 131 sources brighter than 20 mJy were directly subtracted from the VSA visibility data. Some characteristics of the subtracted sources, such as spectra and variability, are discussed. The 33-GHz source counts are estimated from a sample selected at 15 GHz. The selection of VSA fields in order to avoid bright sources introduces a bias into the observed counts. This bias is corrected and the resulting source count is estimated to be complete in the flux-density range 20–114 mJy. The 33-GHz source counts are used to calculate a correction to the VSA power spectrum for sources below the subtraction limit.     

The Petrography and composition of phlogopite micas from the Blue Ball Kimberlite,Arkansas: A record of chemical evolution during crystallization

Summary The Blue Ball kimberlite, Scott County, Arkansas, contains between 23 and 36 modal % phlogopite. Phlogopite is present as phenocrysts, a groundmass phase, and as coronas around serpentinized olivine phenocrysts. Intermediate and reverse pleochroism, seen in phenocryst cores and the majority of groundmass phlogopites, can be correlated with the mineral chemistry. Reverse pleochroism, exhibited by phenocryst rims, rare groundmass grains, and phlogopites forming coronas around olivine, is generally accompanied by an increase in total Fe (as FeO) and a decrease in Al₂ O₃. Analyses of those phlogopites whoch exhibit reverse pleochroism have high cation totals, indicative of the presence of Fe³⁺. We suggest that these pleochroic schemes are a function of Fe³⁺ in the tetrahedral site, which is expressed in terms of T = [8 - (Si + Al)]. All Blue Ball phlogopites have positive values for T, but reverse pleochroism is found only when T > 0.6, indicative of increased Fe³⁺ in the residual magma. It is concluded that phlogopite was on the liquidus throughout practically all of the kimberlite crystallization, because of the wide range in phlogopite compositions and the general decrease in Ba from micas exhibiting intermediate to reverse pleochroism. Variations of MG #, Ti, Ba, Si, and Al within the phlogopites have been used to trace the crystallization of other phases present in the kimberlite, namely olivine and spinel (chromite and titanomagnetite). Olivine was an early crystallizing phase, causing a decrease in MG # and Si, and an increase in Ti and Al in the phlogopites, a reflection of residual magma composition. Minor chromite also crystallized at this time, but was not of sufficient quantity to override the effect of olivine fractionation on the residual magma. Widespread Titano-magnetite crystallization occurred as olivine fractionation ceased, causing an increase in MG # and Si, and a decrease in Ti and Al. By examining these chemical variations with T, the evolution of the Blue Ball kimberlite has been determined.

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Petrographie und zusammensetzung phlogopitischer Glimmer aus dem Blue Ball Kimberlit, Arkansas: chemische evolution während der kristallisation

Zusammenfassung Der Blue Ball Kimberlit, Scott County, Arkansas, enthält zwischen 23 und 36% Phlogopit (modal). Dieser kommt in idiomorphen Kristallen, als Grundmasse, und als Coronas um serpentinisierte Olivinkristalle vor. Verschiedene Arten von Pleochroismus, die man in den Kernen von Kristallen und in der Mehrzahl der Phlogopite in der Grundmasse erkennen kann, lassen sich mit der Mineralehemie korrelieren. Reverser Pleochroismus ist an den Rändern von Kristallen, selten in Grundkörnern der Grundmasse, und in Phlogopiten die Coronas in Olivin bilden, zu beobachten. Diese Erscheinung wird im allgemeinen von einer Zunahme des Gesamt-Eisens (als FeO) und einer Abnahme der Al₂ O₃-Gehalte begleitet. Analysen jener Phlogopite, die reversen Pleochroismus zeigen, haben hohe Gesamtwerte an Kationen und dies weist auf die Anwesenheit von Fe³⁺ hin. Wir interpretieren diesen Pleochroismus als eine Funktion des Fe³⁺ in der Tetraeder-Position, die sich als T = 8 - (Si + Al) ausdrücken läßt. Alle Phlogopite von Blue Ball haben positive Werte für T, aber reverser Pleochroismus tritt nur dort auf, wo T > 0.6, was widerum auf eine Zunahme von Fe³⁺ im residualen Magma hinweist. Phlogopit war praktisch während der gesamten Kristallisation des Kimberlits am Liquidus, und diese Annahme wird auch durch das weite Feld der PhlogopitZusammensetzungen und durch die allgemeine Abahme der Ba-Gehalte in Glimmern mit intermediärem bis reversem Pleochroismus unterstützt. Variationen von MG #, Ti, Ba, Si und Al in den Phlogopiten wurden benutzt, um die Kristallisation von Olivin und Spinellen (Chromit und Titanomagnetit) zu verfolgen. Olivin hat früh kristallisiert und führte zu einer Abnahme von MG# und Si und einer Zunahme von Ti und Al in den Phlogopiten. Auch kleinere Mengen von Chromit kristallisierten zu dieser Zeit, dies war jedoch nicht ausreichend, um den Effekt der Olivin-Fraktionierung auf die Restschmelze aufzuheben. Titanomagnetit-Kristallisation setzte mit aufhörender Olivinfraktionierung ein und führte zu einer Zunahme von Mg und Si und einer Abnahme von Ti und Al. Eine Überprüfung der chemischen Variationen und Vergleich mit T Werten tragen wesentlich zur Kenntnis der Evolution des Blue Ball Kimberlites bei.

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With 8 Figures     

Transport and retention in an upwelling region: The role of across-shelf structure

The paradox of upwelling is the relationship between strong wind forcing, nutrient enrichment, and shelf productivity. Here we investigate how across-shelf structure in velocity and hydrography plays a role in the retention (inshore) and export (offshore) of particles such as nutrients, plankton and larvae. We examine the spatial structure of the coastal currents during wind-driven upwelling and relaxation on the northern Californian Shelf. The field work was conducted as part of the Wind Events and Shelf Transport (WEST) project, a 5-year NSF/CoOP-funded study of the role of wind-driven transport in shelf productivity off Bodega Bay (northern California) from 2000 to 2003. We combine shipboard velocity profiles (ADCP) and water properties from hydrographic surveys during the upwelling season to examine the mean across-shelf structure of the hydrography and velocity fields during three contrasting upwelling seasons, and throughout the upwelling-relaxation cycle. We also present results from two winter seasons that serve as contrast to the upwelling seasons.During all three upwelling seasons clear spatial structure is evident in velocity and hydrography across the shelf, exemplified by current reversals inshore and the presence of a persistent upwelling jet at the shelf break. This jet feature changes in structure and distance from the coast under different wind forcing regimes. The jet also changes from the north of our region, where it is a single narrow jet, adjacent to the coast, and to the south of our region, where it broadens and at times two jets become evident. We present observations of the California Under Current, which was observed at the outer edge of our domain during all three upwelling seasons. The observed across-shelf structure could aid both in the retention of plankton inshore during periods of upwelling followed by relaxation and in the export of plankton offshore in the upwelling jet.     

The role of climate in the spread of modern humans into Europe

The spread of anatomically modern humans (AMH) into Europe occurred when shifts in the North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation triggered a series of large and abrupt climate changes during the last glacial. However, the role of climate forcing in this process has remained unclear. Here we present a last glacial record that provides insight into climate-related environmental shifts in the eastern Mediterranean region, i.e. the gateway for the colonisation of Europe by AMH. We show that the environmental impact of the Heinrich Event H5 climatic deterioration c. 48 kyr ago was as extreme as that of the glacial maximum of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 when most of Europe was deserted by Neanderthals. We argue that Heinrich H5 resulted in a similar demographic vacuum so that invasive AMH populations had the opportunity to spread into Europe and occupy large parts before the Neanderthals were able to reoccupy this territory. This spread followed the resumption of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at the beginning of Greenland Interstadial (GIS) 12 c. 47 kyr ago that triggered an extreme and rapid shift from desert-steppe to open woodland biomes in the gateway to Europe. We conclude that the extreme environmental impact of Heinrich H5 within a situation of competitive exclusion between two closely related hominids species shifted the balance in favour of modern humans.     

The 2011 eruption of Nabro volcano,Eritrea: perspectives on magmatic processes from melt inclusions

The 2011 eruption of Nabro volcano, Eritrea, produced one of the largest volcanic sulphur inputs to the atmosphere since the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, yet has received comparatively little scientific attention. Nabro forms part of an off-axis alignment, broadly perpendicular to the Afar Rift, and has a history of large-magnitude explosive silicic eruptions, as well as smaller more mafic ones. Here, we present and analyse extensive petrological data obtained from samples of trachybasaltic tephra erupted during the 2011 eruption to assess the pre-eruptive magma storage system and explain the large sulphur emission. We show that the eruption involved two texturally distinct batches of magma, one of which was more primitive and richer in sulphur than the other, which was higher in water (up to 2.5 wt%). Modelling of the degassing and crystallisation histories demonstrates that the more primitive magma rose rapidly from depth and experienced degassing crystallisation, while the other experienced isobaric cooling in the crust at around 5 km depth. Interaction between the two batches occurred shortly before the eruption. The eruption itself was likely triggered by recharge-induced destabilisation of vertically extensive mush zone under the volcano. This could potentially account for the large volume of sulphur released. Some of the melt inclusions are volatile undersaturated, and suggest that the original water content of the magma was around 1.3 wt%, which is relatively high for an intraplate setting, but consistent with seismic studies of the Afar plume. This eruption was smaller than some geological eruptions at Nabro, but provides important insights into the plumbing systems and dynamics of off-axis volcanoes in Afar.