Use of the conditional spectrum to incorporate record‐to‐record variability in simplified seismic assessment of RC wall buildings

A procedure for incorporating record‐to‐record variability into the simplified seismic assessment of RC wall buildings is presented. The procedure relies on the use of the conditional spectrum to randomly sample spectral ordinates at relevant periods of vibration. For inelastic response, displacement reduction factors are then used to relate inelastic displacement demand to the spectral displacement at the effective period for single‐degree‐of‐freedom systems. Simple equations are used to convert back and forth between multi‐degree‐of‐freedom RC wall buildings and equivalent single‐degree‐of‐systems so that relevant engineering demand parameters can be obtained. Consideration is also given to higher‐mode effects by adapting existing modal combination rules. The proposed method is applied to several case study buildings, showing promising results in the examination of inter‐storey drift ratio and shear forces. The proposed method captures the variation in the distribution of structural response parameters that occurs with variations in structural configuration, intensity, engineering demand parameter of interest and site characteristics. Discussion is provided on possible ways to improve the accuracy of the procedure and suggestions for additional future work. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of idealized water waves on the turbulence structure and kinetic energy budgets in the overlying airflow

The influence of an idealized moving wavy surface on the overlying airflow is investigated using direct numerical simulations (DNS). In the present simulations, the bulk Reynolds number is Re = 8000 (; where U₀ is the forcing velocity of the flow, h the height of the domain and v the kinematic viscosity) and the phase speed of the imposed waves relative to the friction velocity, i.e., the wave age varies from very slow to fast waves. The wave signal is clearly present in the airflow up to at least 0.15λ (where λ is the wave length) and is present up to higher levels for faster waves. In the kinetic energy budgets, pressure transport is mainly of importance for slow waves. For fast waves, viscous transport and turbulent transport dominate near the surface. Kinetic energy budgets for the wave and turbulent perturbations show a non-negligible transport of turbulent kinetic energy directed from turbulence to the wave perturbation in the airflow. The wave-turbulent energy transport depends on the size, tilt, and phase of the wave-induced part of the turbulent Reynolds stresses.According to the DNS data, slow waves are more efficient in generating isotropic turbulence than fast waves.Despite the differences in wave-shape as well as in Reynolds number between the idealized direct numerical simulations and the atmosphere, there are intriguing similarities in the turbulence structure. Important information about the turbulence above waves in the atmosphere can be obtained from DNS—the data must, however, be interpreted with care.     

Improving the prospects for detecting extrasolar planets in gravitational microlensing events in 2002

Gravitational microlensing events of high magnification have been shown to be promising targets for detecting extrasolar planets. However, only a few events of high magnification have been found using conventional survey techniques. Here we demonstrate that high-magnification events can be readily found in microlensing surveys using a strategy that combines high-frequency sampling of target fields with on-line difference imaging analysis. We present 10 microlensing events with peak magnifications greater than 40 that were detected in real-time towards the Galactic bulge during 2001 by the Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics (MOA) project. We show that Earth-mass planets can be detected in future events such as these through intensive follow-up observations around the event peaks. We report this result with urgency as a similar number of such events are expected in 2002.     

Towed vehicle observations of thin layer structure and a low-salinity intrusion in Northern Monterey Bay,CA

Thin phytoplankton layers are common features in the coastal environment; however sampling these fine-scale optical features across broad horizontal scales remains a challenge. To investigate the horizontal spatial structure of thin phytoplankton layers, we performed an overnight survey in northern Monterey Bay, CA, USA using a SeaSciences Acrobat towed-vehicle. Physical and optical measurements were collected between the surface and near-bottom-depths along four parallel, across-shore transects. Three coherent chlorophyll features were observed: (1) a broad, sub-surface patch at the offshore end, (2) a near-surface patch at the nearshore end, and (3) a deep patch located between the nearshore and offshore patches. The offshore and nearshore patch were separated by a change in seafloor slope and a region of compressed, shoaling isopycnals. Both the offshore and nearshore features were located at the pycnocline, had similar optical properties, and were co-located with a low-salinity intrusion. The deep chlorophyll patch had associated physical and optical properties that were distinct from the patches at the pycnocline. The results from this study further underscore the heterogeneous horizontal spatial structure of thin layers and also add to the growing evidence suggesting that low-salinity intrusions may be strongly linked to the formation of thin phytoplankton layers over the northern shelf of Monterey Bay.     

Interacting physical,chemical and biological forcing of phytoplankton thin-layer variability in Monterey Bay,California

During the 2005 Layered Organization in the Coastal Ocean (LOCO) field program in Monterey Bay, California, we integrated intensive water column surveys by an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) with satellite and mooring data to examine the spatiotemporal scales and processes of phytoplankton thin-layer development. Surveying inner to outer shelf waters repeatedly between August 18 and September 6, the AUV acquired 6841 profiles. By the criteria: [(1) thickness ≤3 m at the full-width half-maximum, (2) peak chlorophyll at least twice the local background concentrations, and (3) a corresponding peak in optical backscattering], thin layers were detected in 3978 (58%) of the profiles. Average layer thickness was 1.4 m, and average intensity was 13.5 μg l^?1 above (3.2x) background. Thin layers were observed at depths between 2.6 and 17.6 m, and their depths showed diurnal vertical migration of the layer phytoplankton populations. Horizontal scales of thin-layer patches ranged from <100 m to>10,000 m. A thin-layer index (TLI), computed from layer frequency, intensity and thinness, was highest in mid-shelf waters, coincident with a frontal zone between bay waters and an intrusion of low-salinity offshore waters. Satellite observations showed locally enhanced chlorophyll concentrations along the front, and in situ observations indicated that phytoplankton may have been affected by locally enhanced nutrient supply in the front and concentration of motile populations in a convergence zone. Minimum TLI was furthest offshore, in the area most affected by the intrusion of offshore, low-chlorophyll waters. Average thin-layer intensity doubled during August 25–29, in parallel with warming at the surface and cooling within and below the thermocline. During this apparent bloom of thin-layer populations, density oscillations in the diurnal frequency band increased by an order of magnitude at the shelfbreak and in near-bottom waters of the inner shelf, indicating the role of internal tidal pumping from Monterey Canyon onto the shelf. This nutrient transport process was mapped by the AUV. Peak TLI was observed on August 29 during a nighttime survey, when phytoplankton were concentrated in the nutricline. Empirical orthogonal function decomposition of the thin-layer particle size distribution data from this survey showed that throughout the inner to outer shelf survey domain, the layers were dominated by phytoplankton having a cross-section of ～50 μm. This is consistent with the size of abundant Akashiwo sanguinea cells observed microscopically in water samples. During a subsequent and stronger intrusion of low-salinity offshore waters, spatially-averaged vertical density stratification decreased by > 50%, and phytoplankton thin layers disappeared almost completely from the AUV survey domain.     

Thin layers and species-specific characterization of the phytoplankton community in Monterey Bay,California, USA

During the summers of 2005 and 2006, experiments designed to understand the properties of densely concentrated, thin layers of plankton and the processes governing their dynamics were conducted in Monterey Bay, California, USA. Our goal was to elucidate the role that species-specific properties of phytoplankton play in thin layer dynamics. Using adaptive sampling, we collected water samples from inside and outside bio-optical features of the water column. Characterization of the phytoplankton was compiled from live and preserved samples, and analyzed within a framework of physical, optical, chemical and acoustical data. In both years, Monterey Bay was home to an extraordinarily diverse assemblage of phytoplankton and other protists. Bioluminescent dinoflagellates, and Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) taxa were common. In 2005, community assemblages were widespread, thus advection of water through the experimental mooring array did not result in floristic changes. In 2006 phytoplankton were very patchy in horizontal distribution, and advection of water through the array was at times accompanied by dramatic shifts in community composition. Individual taxa often exhibited disparate patterns of vertical distribution, with some found throughout the water column, whereas others were restricted to narrow depth intervals. Thin layers were observed in both years. In 2005, the dinoflagellate Akashiwo sanguinea formed intense thin layers near the pycnocline at night, and migrated to near surface waters at dawn. In 2006, layer composition was more complex, and related to the water mass present at the time of sampling. Optically detected thin layers of phytoplankton can be studied from the perspective of the impact their high biomass has on both ecological processes, and ocean optics. But thin layers can also be studied from the species-specific perspective of each organism, its role within the thin layer habitat, and the impact that life within a thin layer has on its life history and ecology. Several low-abundance taxa appeared to be restricted to narrow depth intervals in the water column, and constitute species-specific thin layers with the potential to have a large ecological impact even if their biomass is too low to dominate an optically defined thin layer. Concentration into thin layers may also facilitate obligatory relationships between taxa, such as the hypothesized interrelationships between cryptomonads, Myrionecta rubra, and Dinophysis spp., all of which were observed in this system. Complexity of vertical structure in Monterey Bay rivals that already demonstrated in topographically constrained, stratified systems, and presents challenges to our theoretical framework of phytoplankton ecology.     

Variability of physical and chemical characteristics along the 70-m isobath of the southeastern Bering Sea

From observations of ice cover, temperature, salinity, currents and nitrate, it is evident that along-shelf variability was significant over the middle shelf of the eastern Bering Sea, but less distinct than that observed in the cross-shelf domains. Along the 70-m isobath, three zones were evident in the summer: the southeastern cold pool (centered at 57°N); an intermediate zone, consisting of warmer water, with weaker stratification; and the northern cold pool, extending northward from 58°N. Small-scale (20 km) horizontal features that persisted for months were common. Nutrient concentrations were related to salinity and were replenished more uniformly over the southern shelf, than north of the Pribilof Islands. Although mean currents were weak (1 cm s⁻¹), short energetic advective events impacted the temperature and salinity structure.     

Assessment of diel chemical and isotopic techniques to investigate biogeochemical cycles in the upper Klamath River,Oregon, USA

The upper Klamath River experiences a cyanobacterial algal bloom and poor water quality during the summer. Diel chemical and isotopic techniques have been employed in order to investigate the rates of biogeochemical processes.Four diel measurements of field parameters (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen concentrations, and alkalinity) and stable isotope compositions (dissolved oxygen–δ¹⁸O and dissolved inorganic carbon–δ¹³C) have been performed between June 2007 and August 2008. Significant diel variations of pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration, and DO–δ¹⁸O were observed, due to varying rates of primary productivity vs. respiration vs. gas exchange with air. Diel cycles are generally similar to those previously observed in river systems, although there are also differences compared to previous studies. In large part, these different diel signatures are the result of the low turbulence of the upper Klamath River. Observed changes in the diel signatures vs. sampling date reflect the evolution of the status of the algal bloom over the course of the summer.Results indicate the potential utility of applying diel chemical and stable isotope techniques to investigate the rates of biogeochemical cycles in slow-moving rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, but also illustrate the increased complexity of stable isotope dynamics in these low-turbulence systems compared to well-mixed aquatic systems.     

Community-level enhancements of biodiversity and ecosystem services

A common management technique for preserving and maintaining biodiversity is the establishment of large refuges and preserves. Although extensive sanctuaries can provide crucial protection for many organisms and ecosystems, they cannot fulfill all the needs of regional conservation. An alternative to a few large refuges is to create many different habitats across the landscape that enhance and improve local and regional biodiversity and provide immediate benefits to nearby communities in the form of ecosystem services. Furthermore, these can all be initiated and achieved by individuals or communities. Some key landscape enhancements can be undertaken on a local level: the creation or expansion of small wooded areas, windbreaks, or hedgerows; the construction of small wetlands; and the release of some lands from heavy pressure for the reestablishment of natural ecological processes, namely, the natural accumulation of woody and other organic materials. Newly created ecosystems can be inoculated at the outset with soil biota such as seed banks, microbes, fungi, and organic material that can accelerate ecological functioning and balance. In addition to increasing much local and regional biodiversity, locally enhanced areas can provide fuel, plant and animal food and medicinal products, and agroforestry products directly to the nearby community. These small ecological oases can serve as nesting and overwintering sites for numerous pollinators that are hugely beneficial to agricultural production. Moreover, several ecosystem enhancements may contribute positively to local and regional hydrologic cycles and prevent prolonged droughts. Enhancements to local landscapes can take on many forms. We believe that any changes that increase structural complexity in natural systems almost certainly lead to increases in local biological complexity. In addition, wider landscape level considerations, such as corridors and connectivity of populations, can be integrated on a broader scale to improve regional biodiversity and ecosystem services. Small landscape enhancements undoubtedly cannot provide for all conservation needs, but they can greatly increase widespread biodiversity, restore local ecosystem services, and can be used to complement the relatively few larger parks.