An Analytical Model For Threshold Crossing Rates Of Concentration Fluctuations In Dispersing Plumes

A simple analytical model is developed for the meanupcrossing rate of plume concentration fluctuations assuming that thisprocess can be well approximated by a lognormal process. The resultingexpression requires only the specification of the in-plume fluctuationintensity and in-plume Taylor micro-time scale and, hence, does notexplicitly involve the joint probability density function of theconcentration and its derivative. The analytical model provides agood fit to some field measurements of the mean upcrossing rate ina dispersing plume.     

Intercalibration of Solar Soft X-Ray Broad Band Measurements from SOLRAD 9 through GOES-12

The two-band soft X-ray observations of solar flares made by the Naval Research Laboratory’s (NRL) SOLar RADiation (SOLRAD) satellites and by the Geostationary Orbiting Environmental Satellites (GOES) operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Space Weather Prediction Center have produced a nearly continuous record of solar flare observations over a period of more than forty years (1969 – 2011). However, early GOES observations (i.e., GOES-2) and later (GOES-8 and subsequent missions) are not directly comparable due to changes in the conversion of measured currents to integrated fluxes in the two spectral bands that were adopted: 0.05 – 0.3 (or 0.4) nm, which we refer to as XS and 0.1 – 0.8 nm (XL). Furthermore, additional flux adjustments, using overlapping data sets, were imposed to provide consistency of flare-flux levels from mission to mission. This article evaluates the results of these changes and compares experimental GOES-8/GOES-2 results with changes predicted from modeled flare spectra. The factors by which recent GOES observations can be matched to GOES-2 are then optimized by adapting a technique first used to extrapolate GOES X-ray fluxes above saturation using ionospheric VLF radio phase enhancements. A nearly 20% increase in published GOES-8 XL data would be required to match to GOES-2 XL fluxes, which were based on observed flare spectra. On the other hand, a factor of 1.07 would match GOES-8 and later flat-spectrum 0.1 – 0.8 nm fluxes to GOES-2 XL if the latter data were converted to a flat-spectrum basis. Finally, GOES-8 observations are compared to solar soft X-ray estimates made concurrently with other techniques. Published GOES-8 0.1 – 0.8 nm fluxes are found to be 0.59 of the mean of these other determinations. Rescaling GOES to a realistic flare spectrum and removing a 30% downward adjustment applied to the GOES-8 measurements during initial data processing would place GOES-8 and later GOES XL fluxes at 0.94 of this XL mean. GOES-2 on the same scale would lie at about 0.70 of this mean. Significant uncertainties in the absolute levels of broad band soft X-ray fluxes still remain, however.     

Impact factors identification of spatial heterogeneity of herbaceous plant diversity on five southern islands of Miaodao Archipelago in North China

Herbaceous plants are widely distributed on islands and where they exhibit spatial heterogeneity. Accurately identifying the impact factors that drive spatial heterogeneity can reveal typical island biodiversity patterns. Five southern islands in the Miaodao Archipelago, North China were studied herein. The spatial distribution of herbaceous plant diversity on these islands was analyzed, and the impact factors and their degree of impact on spatial heterogeneity were identified using CCA ordination and ANOVA. The results reveal 114 herbaceous plant species, belonging to 94 genera from 34 families in the 50 plots sampled. The total species numbers on different islands were significantly positively correlated with island area, and the average α diversity was correlated with human activities, while the β diversity among islands was more affected by island area than mutual distances. Spatial heterogeneity within islands indicated that the diversities were generally high in areas with higher altitude, slope, total nitrogen, total carbon, and canopy density, and lower moisture content, pH, total phosphorus, total potassium, and aspect. Among the environmental factors, pH, canopy density, total K, total P, moisture content, altitude, and slope had significant gross effects, but only canopy density exhibited a significant net effect. Terrain affected diversity by restricting plantation, plantation in turn influenced soil properties and the two together affected diversity. Therefore, plantation was ultimately the fundamental driving factor for spatial heterogeneity in herbaceous plant diversity on the five islands.     

祁连山南坡灌丛草甸生物量变化与水热因子的关系研究

通过野外调研和室内实验,研究了祁连山南坡灌丛草甸地上生物量的生长季变化,并对地上生物量与水热因子的关系进行了探讨。结果表明：在不同区域群落结构有所不同,覆盖度越低,上层和下层的植物高度越低,丰富度和多样性越小。但均匀度还受草场退化阶段的影响,群落结构相对稳定,植物的均匀度越高;地上生物量的年内变化是单峰曲线,乌鞘岭和门源的地上生物量在7月份最大,祁连和野牛沟的地上生物量在9月份最大;地上生物量的积累与前1月和前2月的气温和降水正相关,与前4月的气温也正相关,并且对气温变化的敏感性大于降水,但与地温和土壤水分的相关性不明显,前1月表层地温较高对地上生物量的积累有积极作用;对于地上生物量积累,日气温、日相对湿度、降水量有直接正向作用,而日最高气温、日最低气温、日水汽压有直接负向作用,5 cm、20 cm地温和0~10 cm、20~30 cm土壤水分也有直接正向作用,而10 cm地温和10~20 cm土壤水分也有直接负向作用。     

Study on uncertainty of inversion and resolution limit in the presence of noise

This study analyzed the uncertainty of inversion and the resolution limit in the presence of noise by means of statistical experiments. The exhaustive method is adopted to obtain the global optimal solution in each experiment. We found that even with small level of noise, solutions fluctuate in a large range for the thin bed. The distribution of solutions in the presence of noise is closely related to the spread of the cost function in the absence of noise. As a result, the area of a certain neighborhood around the true solution on the spread of the cost function in the absence of noise is used to evaluate the uncertainty of inversion and the resolution limit in the presence of noise. In the case that the SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) is 5 in this study, solutions focus around the true solution with a very small uncertainty only when the bed thickness is greater than the reciprocal of the double predominant frequency of the convoluting wavelet.     

An inter-comparison of tidal solutions computed with a range of unstructured grid models of the Irish and Celtic Sea Regions

Three finite element codes, namely TELEMAC, ADCIRC and QUODDY, are used to compute the spatial distributions of the M₂, M₄ and M₆ components of the tide in the sea region off the west coast of Britain. This region is chosen because there is an accurate topographic dataset in the area and detailed open boundary M₂ tidal forcing for driving the model. In addition, accurate solutions (based upon comparisons with extensive observations) using uniform grid finite difference models forced with these open boundary data exist for comparison purposes. By using boundary forcing, bottom topography and bottom drag coefficients identical to those used in an earlier finite difference model, there is no danger of comparing finite element solutions for “untuned unoptimised solutions” with those from a “tuned optimised solution”. In addition, by placing the open boundary in all finite element calculations at the same location as that used in a previous finite difference model and using the same M₂ tidal boundary forcing and water depths, a like with like comparison of solutions derived with the various finite element models was possible. In addition, this open boundary was well removed from the shallow water region, namely the eastern Irish Sea where the higher harmonics were generated. Since these are not included in the open boundary, forcing their generation was determined by physical processes within the models. Consequently, an inter-comparison of these higher harmonics generated by the various finite element codes gives some indication of the degree of variability in the solution particularly in coastal regions from one finite element model to another. Initial calculations using high-resolution near-shore topography in the eastern Irish Sea and including “wetting and drying” showed that M₂ tidal amplitudes and phases in the region computed with TELEMAC were in good agreement with observations. The ADCIRC code gave amplitudes about 30 cm lower and phases about 8° higher. For the M₄ tide, in the eastern Irish Sea amplitudes computed with TELEMAC were about 4 cm higher than ADCIRC on average, with phase differences of order 5°. For the M₆ component, amplitudes and phases showed significant small-scale variability in the eastern Irish Sea, and no clear bias between the models could be found. Although setting a minimum water depth of 5 m in the near-shore region, hence removing wetting and drying, reduced the small-scale variability in the models, the differences in M₂ and M₄ tide between models remained. For M₆, a significant reduction in variability occurred in the eastern Irish Sea when a minimum 5-m water depth was specified. In this case, TELEMAC gave amplitudes that were 1 cm higher and phases 30° lower than ADCIRC on average. For QUODDY in the eastern Irish Sea, average M₂ tidal amplitudes were about 10 cm higher and phase 8° higher than those computed with TELEMAC. For M₄, amplitudes were approximately 2 cm higher with phases of order 15° higher in the northern part of the region and 15° lower in the southern part. For M₆ in the north of the region, amplitudes were 2 cm higher and about 2 cm lower in the south. Very rapid M₆ tidal-phase changes occurred in the near-shore regions. The lessons learned from this model inter-comparison study are summarised in the final section of the paper. In addition, the problems of performing a detailed model–model inter-comparison are discussed, as are the enormous difficulties of conducting a true model skill assessment that would require detailed measurements of tidal boundary forcing, near-shore topography and precise knowledge of bed types and bed forms. Such data are at present not available.     

兰州市城区河道表层沉积物地球化学元素分布特征

通过对兰州市河道表层沉积物地球化学元素分析发现,兰州市河道表层沉积物41种地球化学元素富集因子多小于1,Cl、S、P、Bi、Cr、Cu、Pb、Sn、U、W、Zn富集因子值均大于2,显示了较高的污染水平。对单个采样点总富集因子的分析研究发现,R值均大于2,显示出较多的富集。其中水磨沟下游和鱼儿沟下游富集因子出现高值,显示出严重污染。元素来源研究结果显示,兰州市河道表层沉积物地球化学元素的来源可分为3类:①生活污水排放以及雨水对地面或街道的冲刷作用;②工业污染,包括冶金、电镀、农药和化肥等污水的排放;③本地土壤类型灰钙土中元素的贡献。通过粒度与元素相关性分析可知,元素P、Cl主要分布于细颗粒物质中,反映了兰州市河道表层沉积物污染物质在细颗粒中有较大量的富集。     

Reconstruction of cropland spatial patterns and its spatiotemporal changes over the 20th century on the Songnen Plain,Northeast China

We initially estimated the cropland area at county level using local historical documents for the Songnen Plain (SNP) in the 1910s and 1930s. We then allocated this cropland area to grid cells with a size of 1 km × 1 km, using a range of cultivation possibilities from high to low; this was based on topography and minimum distances to rivers, settlements, and traffic lines. Cropland areas for the 1950s were obtained from the Land Use Map of Northeast China, and map vectorization was performed with ArcGIS technology. Cropland areas for the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s were retrieved from Landsat images. We found that the cropland areas were 4.92 × 10⁴ km² and 7.60 × 10⁴ km², accounting for 22.8% and 35.2% of the total area of the SNP in the 1910s and 1930s, respectively, which increased to 13.14 × 10⁴ km², accounting for 60.9% in the 2010s. The cropland increased at a rate of 1.18 × 10⁴ km² per decade from the 1910s to 1970s while it was merely 0.285 × 10⁴ km² per decade from the 1970s to 2010s. From the 1910s to 1930s, new cultivation mainly occurred in the central SNP while, from the 1930s to 1970s, it was mainly over the western and northern parts. This spatially explicit reconstruction could be offered as primary data for studying the effects of changes in human-induced land cover based on climate change over the last century.     

古运河旅游开发及其空间模式研究——以京杭大运河长江三角洲区段为例

以京杭大运河长三角地区扬州至杭州段为研究区域,在归纳沿线7个城市运河旅游规划的空间布局、配套设施和线路策划等内容的基础上,分析了其运河旅游开发中存在的问题.提出古运河旅游开发的基本条件:(1)保护古运河遗产;(2)改善水质,控制货运船只;(3)整合城市文脉;(4)丰富古运河旅游内容.通过比较古运河遗产廊道保护模式与古运河旅游点轴开发模式发现:两种模式在实施流程和操作对象上具有内在的一致性;由两种模式形成的古运河保护与开发的空间格局拟合很好,共同构成了古运河旅游开发的基本空间模式.构建了景区、城市和区域3个尺度的运河旅游节点与发展轴线,并指出影响古运河旅游空间范围的因素.     

Caledonian Low-Temperature Granulite-Facies Metamorphism in the West Kunlun Orogenic Belt—SHRIMP Chronological Evidence from Zircon

The West Kunlun orogenic belt is located at the conjunction of the paleo-Asian tectonic system and the Tethys tectonic system. Petrological and mineralogical studies of the Early Cambrian metamorphic surface crust in this region have shown that in case the metamorphism reached low-temperature granulate facies, the typical mineral assemblage is biotite-garnet-silimanite-K feldspar-plagioclase-quartz. The peak metamorphic temperatures are within the range of 720–740°C and the pressure is 0.6 GPa ±. Three types of metamorphic zircon have been detected in the metamorphic rocks: the complex inclusion-bearing type ; the early relic zircon inclusion-bearing type; and the inclusion-free type. SHRIMP age determination of these three types of metamorphic zircon have revealed that these zircons were formed principally during 400–460 Ma, indicating that pre-Cambrian metamorphic surface crust rocks underwent low-temperature granulite facies metamorphism during the Caledonian. In combination with the geological characteristics of this region, it is considered that when the oceanic basin was closed, there occurred intense intracontinental subduction (type A), bringing part of the Early Cambrian metamorphic basement in this region downwards to the lower crust. Meanwhile, there were accompanied with tectonic deformation at deep levels and medium- to high-grade metamorphism. This study provided important chronological and mineralogical evidence for the exploration of the evolutionary mechanism and process of the West Kunlun Early Paleozoic. Part of the results from the research project “ Research on the West Kunlun pre-Cambrian tectonic events” under the program “ Research on the important geological problems of China’ s pre-Cambrian” (No. 200113900070) sponsored by the China National Geological Surveying Bureau.