Modeling Groundwater Depletion at Regional and Global Scales: Present State and Future Prospects

Except for frozen water in ice and glaciers, groundwater is the world’s largest distributed store of freshwater and has strategic importance to global food and water security. In this paper, the most recent advances quantifying groundwater depletion (GWD) are comprehensively reviewed. This paper critically evaluates the recently advanced modeling approaches estimating GWD at regional and global scales, and the evidence of feedbacks to the Earth system including sea-level rise associated with GWD. Finally, critical challenges and opportunities in the use of groundwater are identified for the adaption to growing food demand and uncertain climate.     

Aerodynamic Scaling for Estimating the Mean Height of Dense Canopies

We used an aerodynamic method to objectively determine a representative canopy height, using standard meteorological measurements. The canopy height may change if the tree height is used to represent the actual canopy, but little work to date has focused on creating a standard for determining the representative canopy height. Here we propose the ‘aerodynamic canopy height’ h _a as the most effective means of resolving the representative canopy height for all forests. We determined h _a by simple linear regression between zero-plane displacement d and roughness length z ₀, without the need for stand inventory data. The applicability of h _a was confirmed in five different forests, including a forest with a complex canopy structure. Comparison with stand inventory data showed that h _a was almost equivalent to the representative height of trees composing the crown surface if the forest had a simple structure, or to the representative height of taller trees composing the upper canopy in forests with a complex canopy structure. The linear relationship between d and z ₀ was explained by assuming that the logarithmic wind profile above the canopy and the exponential wind profile within the canopy were continuous and smooth at canopy height. This was supported by observations, which showed that h _a was essentially the same as the height defined by the inflection point of the vertical profile of wind speed. The applicability of h _a was also verified using data from several previous studies.     

Periodic solutions of the third sort for restricted problem of three bodies and their stability

In this paper periodic solutions of the third sort for restricted problem of three bodies in the three-dimensional space are derived numerically by starting from generating solutions obtained by one of the authors (1969) and by increasing the mass-ratio of the two primaries stepwise from zero to about 1000 for 21, 32 and 61 cases of commensurable mean motions. Periodic solutions both for circular and elliptic orbits of the primaries are obtained.The stability of the periodic solutions for the 21 circular case is discussed and it is found that none of them is linearly stable.     

Single-zircon Pb-evaporation and 40Ar/39Ar dating of the metamorphic and granitic rocks in north-west Spitsbergen

North-west Spitsbergen consists of a complex of Caledonian and Grenvillian crystalline rocks, situated at the north-west corner of the Barents Shelf. The aim of this study is to understand the extent of pre-Caledonian basement rocks and their protoliths. Micas and zircon grains from six rocks from north-west Spitsbergen have been dated by the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar and single-zircon Pb-evaporation methods. Two grey granites yielded Late Caledonian mica ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar and zircon ages of ca. 420-430 My, with inherited zircon grains as old as 1725 My. Zircon grains from a gneissose granite xenolith in a grey granites gave crystallization ages of ca. 960 My; some grains from a migmatite neosome show similar ages. Zircon grains yielding Archean and late Palaeoproterozoic ages (1600-1800 My) are interpreted as xenocrysts of detrital origin. The youngest ages obtained from detrital zircon grains from a greenschist facies quartzite of the Signehamna unit are ca. 1800 My. Similar schists are included as xenoliths in the 960 My old gneissose granite; therefore, the sedimentary protoliths of the unit are Mesoproterozoic. The dating results suggest a significant tectonothermal event during Grenvillian time; subsequent Caledonian events had less extensive thermal effects. However, it is still a matter of debate whether Grenvillian or Caledonian metamorphism produced the majority of the migmatites. A large population of zircon grains with Late Palaeoproterozoic ages suggests a wide surface exposure of rocks of this age in the source area, with some Archean zircons.     

Probable effects of CO2-induced climatic warming on the thermal environment of ponded shallow water

A physical model was developed for describing the thermal environment of ponded shallow water as a model for rice fields in relation to climatic conditions. The model was used to assess probable effects of CO₂-induced warming on the thermal conditions of ponded shallow water. It was assumed that an altered equilibrium climate was produced by atmospheric CO₂ which was twice that of present levels. The 1951–80 climatic means of Japan were used as baseline data. Water temperature and energy balance characteristics predicted from the model were compared between both climates. The most notable results were that water temperature under CO₂ doubling rose 2 to 4 °C. These increases in temperature would induce a remarkable northward shift of the 15 °C isotherm which characterizes the isochrone of safe transplanting dates for rice seedlings. CO₂-warming would have a considerable influence on the energy balance characteristics, intensifying the evaporation rate from the water surface. Changes in thermal conditions of rice fields due to CO₂-induced climatic warming are, therefore, expected to bring about significant effects on aquatic environments and the life forms they support.     

U---Pb, Sr and Nd evidence for grenvillian and latest proterozoic tectonothermal activity in the spitsbergen caledonides, arctic ocean

Within the Caledonian complexes of northwestern Spitsbergen, high PT formations provide U---Pb zircon ages of 965±1 Ma of a metagranite and 955±1 Ma of a corona gabbro, indicating the influence of Grenvillian activity in the area. Various isotopic systems suggest that these rocks were partially derived by reworking of ancient crust (as old as Archaean). Eclogites and felsic agmatite indicate latest Proterozoic magmatic or metamorphic events (625₋₅⁺² and 661±2 Ma, respectively) by U---Pb zircon dating. The eclogitic metamorphism age is not fully constrained and ranges between 540 and 620 Ma; this occurred prior to the superimposed Caledonian metamorphism, indicated by a part of the K---Ar and Rb---Sr mineral cooling ages. The new data and other evidence of Precambrian tectonothermal activity on Svalbard suggest that the Early Palaeozoic and Late Proterozoic successions exposed elsewhere on Svalbard may also be underlain by Grenvillian or older basement rocks. Relationships to other Grenvillian and older terrains in the Arctic are reviewed.     

Deep biological communities in the subduction zone of Japan from bottom photographs taken during “nautile” dives in the Kaiko project

Twenty-seven dives of the submersible “Nautile” in the subduction zone around Japan conducted in the French-Japanese Project Kaiko proved that fairly luxuriant benthic communities dominated by deep-sea giant clams of the genusCalyptogena (family Vesicomyidae) were consistently present on the accretionary prism at abyssal depths.Benthic communities characterized by three hitherto undescribed bivalves of the genusCalyptogena were found between depths of about 3800 and 4020 m at the mouth of Tenryu Canyon and at the top of basement swell of the Zenisu Ridge, both situated in the eastern Nankai subduction zone. Sporadic but discrete patches of organisms characterized by one more undescribed bivalve belonging to the genusCalyptogena were observed and collected between depths of 5130 and 5960 m on the landward wall of the Japan and Kouriles Trenches.Photographic inventories were prepared semiquantitatively using each series of bottom photographs taken in these areas with bow cameras of the submersible “Nautile”.Observations on the sporadic but dense distribution of the clams and other characteristic associated organisms match well with the scheme that communities sustained by chemosynthetic energy sources can be present at connate water seepages in subduction zones. These are to date the deepest record of benthic communities supposedly associated with chemosynthetic processes.     

The characterization and distribution of aerosol and gaseous species in the winter monsoon over the western pacific ocean

During the winters of 1981 and 1982, measurements were taken on two Japanese islands of the aerosol and gaseous species which had been carried by northwesterly monsoons over the Pacific Ocean. The aerosols were characterized as sea-salt particles; soil particles, and as particles of sulfate, nitrate, organics and elemental carbon. At Chichi-jima island, which is about 800 km away from the main islands of Japan, it was found that the level of the anthropogenic components of the aerosols was considerably higher than their background level. The mean concentrations of the species on the islands are given in tabular forms. According to a survey made on board a ferry boat, the aerosol and gaseous species were fairly uniformly distributed along the southern coast of the main Japanese islands.     

Elemental distribution of coastal sea and stream sediments in the island-arc region of Japan and mass transfer processes from terrestrial to marine environments

A total of 49 elements have been identified in 338 coastal sea sediment samples collected from an area situated off the Ise-Tokai region of Japan for a nationwide marine geochemical mapping project. The spatial distribution patterns of the elemental concentrations in coastal seas along with the existing geochemical maps in terrestrial areas were used to define the natural geochemical background variation, mass transport, and contamination processes. The elemental concentrations of coastal sea sediments are determined primarily by particle size and regional differences. Most elemental concentrations increase with a decrease in particle size. Some elements such as Ca, Mn, and Yb are found to exist in large quantities in coarse particles containing calcareous shells, Fe–Mn oxides, and felsic volcanic sediments. Regional differences reflect the mass transfer process from terrestrial areas to coastal seas and the influence of the local marine geology. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that for many elements, the particle size effect is predominant over regional difference. The mean chemical compositions of coastal sea sediments are similar to those of stream sediments in adjacent terrestrial areas and in the upper crust of Japan. This observation supports the fact that coastal sea sediments have certainly originated from terrestrial materials. However, the spatial distributions of elemental concentrations are not always continuous between the land and coastal seas. The scale of mass movement observed in marine geochemical maps occurs at a distance of 20 km from the river mouth. A detailed examination of the spatial distribution patterns of K (K₂O) and Cr concentrations suggests that terrestrial materials supplied through rivers are deposited near the shore initially, and then gravity-driven processes shift the sediments deeper into the basin. Contamination with heavy metals such as Zn, Cd and Pb was observed in coastal bays surrounded by urban and industrial areas. It is noteworthy that the areas with the highest concentration of these elements usually do not occur near the shore (not near the contamination source) but at the center of the bay. Unexpected low concentrations of Zn, Cd and Pb near shore may either be due to a decreased anthropogenic load in the most recent sediments or to dilution by unpolluted flood sediments.