Stable carbon isotopic ratios of CH4-CO2-bearing fluid inclusions in fracture-fill mineralization from the Lower Saxony Basin (Germany) - A tool for tracing gas sources and maturity

The stable carbon isotopic ratios (δ¹³C) of methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) of gas-rich fluid inclusions hosted in fracture-fill mineralization from the southern part of the Lower Saxony Basin, Germany have been measured online using a crushing device interfaced to an isotopic ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). The data reveal that CH₄ trapped in inclusions seems to be derived from different source rocks with different organic matter types. The δ¹³C values of CH₄ in inclusions in quartz hosted by Carboniferous rocks range between −25 and −19‰, suggesting high-maturity coals as the source of methane. Methane in fluid inclusions in minerals hosted by Mesozoic strata has more negative carbon isotope ratios (−45 to −31‰) and appears to represent primary cracking products from type II kerogens, i.e., marine shales. There is a positive correlation between increasing homogenization temperatures of aqueous fluid inclusions and less negative δ¹³C(CH₄) values of in co-genetic gas inclusions probably indicating different mtaturity of the potential source rocks at the time the fluids were released. The CO₂ isotopic composition of CH₄-CO₂-bearing inclusions shows slight negative or even positive δ¹³C values indicating an inorganic source (e.g., water-rock interaction and dissolution of detrital, marine calcite) for CO₂ in inclusions. We conclude that the δ¹³C isotopic ratios of CH₄-CO₂-bearing fluid inclusions can be used to trace migration pathways, sources of gases, and alteration processes. Furthermore, the δ¹³C values of methane can be used to estimate the maturity of the rocks from which it was sourced. Results presented here are further supported by organic geochemical analysis of surface bitumens which coexist with the gas inclusion-rich fracture-fill mineralization and confirm the isotopic interpretations with respect to fluid source, type and maturity.     

Spatio‐temporal variability of zooplankton biomass and environmental control in the Northern Benguela Upwelling System: field investigations and model simulation

Spatial and temporal distribution patterns of zooplankton are highly variable in the Northern Benguela Upwelling System. We studied the distribution of zooplankton (size class ≥ 0.33 mm) and used field data from four cruises that took place between March 2008 and February 2011, as well as simulation results of a regional ecosystem model. Remotely sensed sea surface temperatures (SST) and surface chlorophyll concentrations were analysed to investigate environmental influences on zooplankton biomass. The Intense Benguela Upwelling Index showed a distinct seasonal signal throughout the years and the highest upwelling peaks in August/September. Even though surface chlorophyll concentrations were very variable throughout the year, the highest concentrations were always detected in September, following the upwelling of nutrient‐rich water. In field catches, zooplankton biomass concentration in the upper 200 m was highest above the outer shelf and shelf‐break in December 2010 and February 2011, i.e. 6 months after the upwelling peaks. In contrast, zooplankton biomass simulated by the model in the surface water was highest in September. In March/April, biomass maxima were typically measured in the field at intermediate water depths, but the vertical distribution was also affected by extensive oxygen minimum zones. The ecosystem model reproduced this vertical pattern. Although general trends were similar, simulation data of zooplankton standing stocks overestimated the field data by a factor of 3. In upwelling systems, food webs are generally considered to be short and dominated by large cells. However, our field data indicate more small‐sized zooplankton organisms above the shelf than offshore.     

Paläotemperaturen und Paläoklima in Obertrias und Lias der Alpen

Zusammenfassung Für 172 karbonatische Proben aus Nor bis Mittellias der Alpen wurden Paläotemperaturen nach dem¹⁸O/¹⁶O-Mischungsverhältnis bestimmt. Untersucht wurden vor allem Fossilien, und zwar bevorzugt solche, die primär vorwiegend oder gänzlich aus Calcit bestanden haben; daneben auch Ooide und Gesteine. Um diagenetischen Verschiebungen des¹⁸O/¹⁶O-Verhältnisses aus dem Wege zu gehen, wurde der Diagenese-Grad jeweils optisch und mit der röntgenographischen Phasen-Analyse geprüft; sichtbar rekristallisiertes Material wurde nicht verwertet.Die ermittelten Paläotemperaturen zeigen — nach Alter und Fazies-Gruppen getrennt dargestellt (Abb. 2) — meist deutliche Häufungen, die angesichts der relativ großen Probenzahlen und der unterschiedlichen diagenetischen Bedingungen für die einzelnen Proben den ursprünglichen Wasser-Temperaturen annähernd entsprechen dürften; diese Annahme wird durch Paläotemperaturen aus aragonitischem Material für das Rät bestätigt. Bei der Interpretation der Paläotemperaturen wurden paläogeographische Faktoren (Bathymetrie, Salzgehalt u. a.), soweit bekannt, berücksichtigt. Für die norischen Flachmeer-Proben ergeben sich Temperaturen um 25°C, für die rätischen etwas niedrigere Werte. Einem Temperatur-Minimum im Unterlias folgte im Mittellias eine Erwärmung um mehrere Grade. Demnach dürften die obertriassischen Korallen-Riffe in den Nördlichen Kalkalpen während während des Unterlias aus klimatischen Gründen abgestorben sein.

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172 carbonate samples from the Alps (mainly the Northern Calcareous Alps) ranging from Norian to Middle Liassic age, have been investigated for their¹⁸O/¹⁶O-content. Paleotemperatures have been determined. The analysed samples — fossils, mainly with primary calcitic shells, ooids and carbonatic sediments —were carefully selected by optical and x-ray methods.The results are given in fig. 2. Paleotemperatures are plotted in groups of the same age and equal or similar facies. The maximum of each group is assumed to represent the average water-temperature of that time. The interpretation of the paleotemperatures refers also to paleogeographic factors, e. g. bathymetry and salinity.The Noric shelf-sea paleotemperatures are in the range of about 25° C and show a systematic decrease to the Upper Rhaetian; a minimum temperature during the Lower Liassic (18° C) was followed by a warmer climatic period in the Middle Liassic. It is assumed that the Upper Triassic coral-reefs of the Northern Calcareous Alps died out because of the low temperature.

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Résumé Pour 172 échantillons carbonates allant du Norien jusqu'au Lias moyen des Alpes on a déterminé les paleotemperatures d'après le rapport¹⁸O/¹⁶O. Étudiant surtout des fossiles, nous avons préféré ceux qui, dès l'origine, consistaient en grande partie ou totalement en calcite; en outre nous avons utilisé des ooides et des roches. Pour éviter l'altération diagénétique du rapport¹⁸O/¹⁶O, on a examiné le degré de la diagnèse sous le microscope et à l'aide des rayons X; le matériel visiblement récristallisé a été exclu de l'étude.Les températures déterminées — groupées selon l'âge et le faciès (fig. 2) —s'accumulent pour la plupart clairement autour de valeurs qui, vraisemblablement, représentent les températures originales de l'eau de mer — vu le nombre élevé des échantillons et les conditions variées de diagenèse qu'ils ont subi. Cette supposition a été vérifiée par des températures determinées sur de l'aragonite pour le Rhétien (Kaltenegger 1967). En interprétant les paléotempératures on a tenu compte des facteurs de paléogéographie (bathymétrie, salinité etc.).Les échantillons noriens provenant d'une mer peu profonde ont donné des températures d'environ 25° C, les échantillons rhétiens des valeurs un peu plus basses. Un minimum pendant le Lias inférieur a été suivi, pendant le Lias moyen, par un réchauffement de plusieurs degrés. On peut donc penser que les récifs coralliens du Trias supérieur dans les Alpes calcaires septentrionales se sont retirés pour des raisons climatiques au cours du Lias inférieur.

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Field significance of performance measures in the context of regional climate model evaluation. Part 1: temperature

A new approach for rigorous spatial analysis of the downscaling performance of regional climate model (RCM) simulations is introduced. It is based on a multiple comparison of the local tests at the grid cells and is also known as “field” or “global” significance. New performance measures for estimating the added value of downscaled data relative to the large-scale forcing fields are developed. The methodology is exemplarily applied to a standard EURO-CORDEX hindcast simulation with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model coupled with the land surface model NOAH at 0.11 ^° grid resolution. Monthly temperature climatology for the 1990–2009 period is analysed for Germany for winter and summer in comparison with high-resolution gridded observations from the German Weather Service. The field significance test controls the proportion of falsely rejected local tests in a meaningful way and is robust to spatial dependence. Hence, the spatial patterns of the statistically significant local tests are also meaningful. We interpret them from a process-oriented perspective. In winter and in most regions in summer, the downscaled distributions are statistically indistinguishable from the observed ones. A systematic cold summer bias occurs in deep river valleys due to overestimated elevations, in coastal areas due probably to enhanced sea breeze circulation, and over large lakes due to the interpolation of water temperatures. Urban areas in concave topography forms have a warm summer bias due to the strong heat islands, not reflected in the observations. WRF-NOAH generates appropriate fine-scale features in the monthly temperature field over regions of complex topography, but over spatially homogeneous areas even small biases can lead to significant deteriorations relative to the driving reanalysis. As the added value of global climate model (GCM)-driven simulations cannot be smaller than this perfect-boundary estimate, this work demonstrates in a rigorous manner the clear additional value of dynamical downscaling over global climate simulations. The evaluation methodology has a broad spectrum of applicability as it is distribution-free, robust to spatial dependence, and accounts for time series structure.     

Late Alpine brittle faulting in the Rotondo granite (Switzerland): deformation mechanisms and fault evolution

The unlined Bedretto tunnel in the Central Swiss Alps has been used to investigate in detail the fault architecture and late Alpine brittle faulting processes in the Rotondo granite on macroscopic and microscopic scales. Brittle faults in the late Variscan Rotondo granite preferentially are situated within the extent of preexisting ductile shear zones. Only in relatively few cases the damage zone extends into or develops in the previously undeformed granite. Slickensides suggest a predominant (dextral) strike-slip movement along these steeply dipping and NE–SW-striking faults. Microstructures of these fault rocks illustrate a multi-stage retrograde deformation history from ductile to brittle conditions up to the cessation of fault activity. In addition these fabrics allow identifying cataclastic flow, fluid-assisted brecciation and chemical corrosive wear as important deformation mechanisms during this retrogressive deformation path. Based on the analysis of zeolite microfabrics (laumontite and stilbite; hydrated Ca–Al- and Na–Ca–Al–silicate, respectively) in fault breccias, cataclasites and open fractures we conclude, that the main phase of active brittle faulting started below 280°C and ceased ca. 14 Ma ago at temperatures slightly above 200°C. This corresponds to a depth of approx. 7 km.     

Geoelektrische Untersuchungen zur Ermittlung der Blitzgefährdung

Zusammenfassung Aus den Untersuchungen, die vom Verf. in Oesterreich ausgeführt wurden, werden folgende Ergebnisse bewiesen: 1. Die elektrische Bodenleitfähigkeit beinflusst massgebend den erdnahen Teil der Blitzbahn; 2. Es gibt daher Zonen hoher Blitzgefährdung, die Blitznester genannt werden; 3. Die Scheitelstromstärke des Blitzes ist durch den spezifischen Bodenwiderstand mitbestimmt; 4. Es besteht ein Zusammenhang zwischen Blitzgefährdung und geoelektrischer Bodenbeschaffenheit.

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Summary Experiments carried out by the Author in Austria show the following results: 1. The electrical conductivity of the grounds has a decisive influence on the course of the lightning: such zones are called «lightning nests». 3. The amplitude of the strength of lightning current is determined also by the specific resistivity of ground. 4. The agreement between the position of lightning nests and the geoelectric condition of ground is beyond dispute.