Gibt es eine «kritische Windgeschwindigkeit» für Prozesse an der Grenzfläche Wasser-Luft?

Zusammenfassung Eineabsolute «kritische Windgeschwindigkeit» für Prozesse an der Grenzfläche Wasser-Luft scheint nicht zu existieren. Unsere Beobachtungen liefern jedoch Anzeichen für das Vorhandenseinrelativer «kritischer Windgeschwindigkeiten, die vom Ueberströmungsweg, bzw. von der Wellenlaufstrecke abzuhängen scheinen. Diese relativen «kritischen Windgeschwindigkeiten» sind durch folgende-Merkmale gekennzeichnet: Aenderung der Struktur der Meeresoberfläche (glatt-rauh); Umschlag der laminaren Wassergrenzschicht zur Turbulenz; Ueberbrechen der Schwerewellen; Minimum des Widerstandskoeffizienten der Meeresoberfläche.

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Summary It seems that there is no absolute «critical wind speed» for air-sea boundary processes. From our observations it may, however, be referred that there are relative values of the «critical wind speed» which seem to depend on the fetch. These relative values of the «critical wind speed» are characterized by the following marks: The sea surface pattern is changed (smooth-rough);, the boundary layer in water turns from laminar to turbulent flow; the gravity waves break; the resistance coefficient of the sea surface has a minimum.

     

Die Matrix der Fische XIV. Elektronenmikroskopische Untersuchung von Fischschuppen

Summary The investigation with an electron-microscope of the scales of the fresh water fish,Leuciscus rutilus L., showed that their ventral “smooth” surface scems to be formed like a corrugated plate with a distance between the ridges of 1–2 μ. The dorsal “rough” side of the scales shows a very fine roughness. It is interrupted by pointed combs of the same structure in a regular distance of 16–27 μ. The thickness of these combs is of about 1 μ at their base, their height of about 5–10 μ. It seems probable that the surface of scales is partially covered with laminas of hyalodentine or guanine.

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13. Mitteilung siehe diese Zeitschrift,13, 29–30 (1951).     

Biological disturbance and camouflage of sedimentary features on the Northeast United States slope and rise

Evidence from over 200 sediment cores, numerous submersible dives, and bottom photographs prove that bioturbation and bioerosion are ongoing processes affecting northeastern U.S. continental slope and rise sedimentation. Evidence of biological activity was found in greater than 95% of the cores examined. Submersible dive observations reveal that the results of biological activity often dominate sea-floor microtopography. Bioturbation can disturb sediments several centimeters deep in a matter of seconds and is in some areas the primary sediment transport mechanism. Many cores with sandy intervals were profoundly disturbed by bioturbation. Biologically camouflaged sand-rich intervals can easily be missed by visual observation.     

Depletion of a brine layer at the base of ridge-crest hydrothermal systems

The variable salinity of fluid venting from mid-ocean ridges is indicative of mixing between hydrothermal seawater and fluids that have undergone supercritical phase separation. In order to study the stability of a brine-saturated layer that may form in the lowermost part of the hydrothermal system, we have performed numerical simulations of a system that has returned into the subcritical regime. For typical geological parameters, it is shown that the interface between the brine layer and the overlying fluids is not very stable, but vanishes by one of two dynamical mechanisms: convective breakdown or vertical migration. This contradicts the conventional picture of a steady, layered convective system in which the brine is depleted only by dispersion and diffusion across the interface. The depletion mechanism depends on the fluid-dynamical stability of the brine layer. Convection within the brine layer results either in the convective breakdown (for low excess salinity of the brine, as compared to seawater) or the upward migration of the interface (for higher excess salinities). Consequently, the depletion times are much shorter than for models with pure dispersion/diffusion across the interface. If the brine layer is static, high-chlorinity liquid is entrained slowly by the convecting overlying fluids, leading to downward migration of the interface. This gradual depletion of the brine layer results in almost constant vent salinities, in agreement with measured salinities of chronic high-chlorinity vents.     

Constraints on the source of Cu in a submarine magmatic-hydrothermal system,Brothers volcano,Kermadec island arc

Most magmatic-hydrothermal Cu deposits are genetically linked to arc magmas. However, most continental or oceanic arc magmas are barren, and hence new methods have to be developed to distinguish between barren and mineralised arc systems. Source composition, melting conditions, the timing of S saturation and an initial chalcophile element-enrichment represent important parameters that control the potential of a subduction setting to host an economically valuable deposit. Brothers volcano in the Kermadec island arc is one of the best-studied examples of arc-related submarine magmatic-hydrothermal activity. This study, for the first time, compares the chemical and mineralogical composition of the Brothers seafloor massive sulphides and the associated dacitic to rhyolitic lavas that host the hydrothermal system. Incompatible trace element ratios, such as La/Sm and Ce/Pb, indicate that the basaltic melts from L’Esperance volcano may represent a parental analogue to the more evolved Brothers lavas. Copper-rich magmatic sulphides (Cu?>?2 wt%) identified in fresh volcanic glass and phenocryst phases, such as clinopyroxene, plagioclase and Fe–Ti oxide suggest that the surrounding lavas that host the Brothers hydrothermal system represent a potential Cu source for the sulphide ores at the seafloor. Thermodynamic calculations reveal that the Brothers melts reached volatile saturation during their evolution. Melt inclusion data and the occurrence of sulphides along vesicle margins indicate that an exsolving volatile phase extracted Cu from the silicate melt and probably contributed it to the overlying hydrothermal system. Hence, the formation of the Cu-rich seafloor massive sulphides (up to 35.6 wt%) is probably due to the contribution of Cu from a bimodal source including wall rock leaching and magmatic degassing, in a mineralisation style that is hybrid between Cyprus-type volcanic-hosted massive sulphide and subaerial epithermal–porphyry deposits.     

NOBLE GASES AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF BRACHINA

Noble-gas systematics show that Brachino is not a member of the SNC-group of meteorites. The whole-rock K-Ar gas retention age is (3.11 ± 0.07) AE as compared to the 1.3 AE solidification ages of SNCs; the content of radiogenic¹²⁹ Xe* of (3.47 ±. 15) × 10^?10 cm³ STP/g is about two orders of magnitude higher, and the¹²⁹ Xe/¹³² Xe ratio (11.0), the ratio of radiogenic¹²⁹ Xe* to fissiogenic¹³⁶ Xe_f (300), and the ratio³⁶ Ar/¹³² Xe in the trapped gases are about one order of magnitude higher than observed for SNCs. The same evidence argues strongly against any simple genetic relationship with eucrites. The noble-gas abundance pattern resembles closely that in silicate inclusions from the iron meteorites Campo del Cielo and Udei Station. Abundances of cosmic-ray produced³ He and²¹ Ne (5.7 and. 99 × 10^?8 cm³ STP/g, resp.) indicate an exposure age of ～ 2.4 Ma. Irradiation conditions appear to have been perfectly normal except for an unaccountably low content of spallogenic ³⁸Ar. Losses by diffusion of radiogenic⁴ He are severe; they must have occurred at or before the onset of the exposure of the meteoroid to the cosmic radiation.     

Shock waves—Phenomenology,experimental, and numerical simulation

Abstract— The purpose of this paper is to review the results of long‐term cooperation between Dieter Stöffler and the authors in the field of shock wave deformation of minerals and rocks. First, the principal phenomena of shock wave generation and propagation, predominantly in solid media, are presented, and then analytical and numerical mathematical treatment of shock wave processes on the basis of mass, momentum, and energy conservation laws will be described and discussed. Experimental methods of shock wave investigations by means of impact and explosive techniques are summarized, including hypervelocity acceleration facilities and high‐pressure explosive devices. Shock pressure barometry by means of mineralogical evidence of distinct material phase transitions and characteristic shock structures is also discussed.     

Substitute conductors for electromagnetic response estimates

Various concepts exist to define substitute conductors for empirical response estimates at singular frequencies: Chapman's shell-core model, the Cagniard-Tikhonov apparent resistivity, the Niblett-Bostick and Molochnov transformation, thep ^* —z ^* transformation. They are all interrelated and assign comparable resistivities to the substitute conductor at a given frequency. Applications to synthetic response data of plane and spherical conductors show under which conditions these substitutions come closest to the model and which influence of source dimensions and Earth's sphericity can be expected.p ^* —z ^* transformed global response data forS andDst variations demonstrate how substitute conductors may serve as useful guides in inverse procedures.