Humidity Measurements in Cold and Humid Environments

Recent studies have shed new light on humidity conditions in the polar atmospheric boundary layer, and cast doubt on the reliability of humidity measurements above the frost point humidity. These issues are addressed herein by considering the processes that affect humidity and its measurement in cold climate conditions and by analyzing observations from two sites, at which the relative humidity is frequently above 100% at sub-freezing temperatures, as shown by repeatedly observed in-cloud icing events. Humidity measurements were made at these two sites by the commonly used Vaisala HMP35 probe and HMP233 capacitance probes respectively and simultaneously by the same manufacturer’s HMP243 probe that determines the frost point by a heated capacitance sensor. The results confirm that the relative humidity is frequently well above the frost point, both due to radiative cooling and to the advection of moist air, and that the conventional humidity measurements are unable to detect these events. Furthermore, after such events, the iced sensors show too high a humidity. The false values occur due to ice growth on the probe and cannot be corrected by any algorithm. Our results indicate that these problems, inherent to conventional humidity measurements in cold and humid environments, are avoided by the use of HMP243, which has a heated humidity probe.     

Effect of inherent microcrack populations on rock tensile fracture behaviour: numerical study based on embedded discontinuity finite elements

Inherent microcrack populations have a significant effect on the fracture behaviour of natural rocks. The present study addresses this topic in numerical simulations of uniaxial tension and three-point bending tests. For this end, a rock fracture model based on multiple intersecting embedded discontinuity finite elements is developed. The inherent (pre-existing) microcrack populations are represented by pre-embedded randomly oriented discontinuity populations. Crack shielding (through spurious locking) is prevented by allowing a new crack to be introduced, upon violation of the Rankine criterion, in an element with an initial crack unfavourably oriented to the loading direction. Rock heterogeneity is accounted for by random clusters of triangular finite elements representing different minerals of granitic numerical rock. Numerical simulations demonstrate the strength lowering effect of initial microcrack populations. This effect is substantially stronger under uniaxial tension, due to the uniform stress state, than in semicircular three-point bending having a non-uniform stress state with a clear local maximum of tensile stress.

     

A geologically-based approach to map arsenic risk in crystalline aquifers:Analysis of the Tampere region,Finland

The study illustrates the critical role of accurate geological structural mapping to delineate crystalline aquifer zones more prone to high health risk due to elevated dissolved As in drinking wells.The analysis revisits the results from more than 1200 groundwater samples collected over ten years from domestic wells across the Tampere region(Finland).It is demonstrated that the highest dissolved As concentrations in the region(up to 2230 μg/L)are exclusively found near major faults and deformation zones(FDZs)detected via geophysical and geological surveys,and that a clear correlation exists between dissolved concentrations and the distance from the FDZs(r).Almost all values exceeding the drinking water limit(10 μg/L)occur at r8 km,while concentrations above 100 μg/L occur at r4 km.Solidphase As concentrations in bedrock show less dependency on FDZ than aqueous concentrations.This behavior is explained considering different mechanisms,which include enhanced sulfide oxidation and fracture connectivity,promoting preferential transport of dissolved As to FDZs and mixing of waters from different redox zones,mobilizing preferentially As(Ⅲ)or As(V).Fe hydro-oxides may also precipitate/dissolve preferentially because of FDZs,while residence time may influence the contact time between water and As-bearing minerals.It is concluded that the accurate mapping of FDZs,and in general of structural geology,provides an important preliminary information to identify where localized,sitespecific characterization of hydrogeology and geochemistry is more urgent to reduce As-related health risk from groundwater intake.     

Impact of Assimilation of Radiosonde and UAV Observations from the Southern Ocean in the Polar WRF Model

Weather forecasting in the Southern Ocean and Antarctica is a challenge above all due to the rarity of observations to be assimilated in numerical weather prediction(NWP) models. As observations are expensive and logistically challenging,it is important to evaluate the benefit that additional observations could bring to NWP. Atmospheric soundings applying unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs) have a large potential to supplement conventional radiosonde sounding observations.Here, we applied UAV and rad...     

Crustal Architecture of the Inverted Central Lapland Rift Along the HUKKA 2007 Profile

We have studied the lateral velocity variations along a partly buried inverted paleo–rift in Central Lapland, Northern Europe with a 2D wide-angle reflection and refraction experiment, HUKKA 2007. The experiment was designed to use seven chemical explosions from commercial and military sites as sources of seismic energy. The shots were recorded by 102 stations with an average spacing of 3.45 km. Two-dimensional crustal models of variations in P-wave velocity and Vp/Vs-ratio were calculated using the ray tracing forward modeling technique. The HUKKA 2007 experiment comprises a 455 km long profile that runs NNW–SSE parallel to the Kittilä Shear Zone, a major deformation zone hosting gold deposits in the area. The profile crosses Paleoproterozoic and reactivated Archean terranes of Central Lapland. The velocity model shows a significant difference in crustal velocity structure between the northern (distances 0–120 km) and southern parts of the profile. The difference in P-wave velocities and Vp/Vs ratio can be followed through the whole crust down to the Moho boundary indicating major tectonic boundaries. Upper crustal velocities seem to vary with the terranes/compositional differences mapped at the surface. The lower layer of the upper crust displays velocities of 6.0–6.1 km/s. Both Paleoproterozoic and Archean terranes are associated with high velocity bodies (6.30–6.35 km/s) at 100 and 200–350 km distances. The Central Lapland greenstone belt and Central Lapland Granitoid complex are associated with a 4 km-thick zone of unusually low velocities (<6.0 km/s) at distances between 120 and 220 km. We interpret the HUKKA 2007 profile to image an old, partly buried, inverted continental rift zone that has been closed and modified by younger tectonic events. It has structural features typical of rifts: inward dipping rift shoulders, undulating thickness of the middle crust, high velocity lower crust and a rather uniform crustal thickness of 48 km.     

Ten Years of Development of Equipment for Measurement of Atmospheric Radioactive Xenon for the Verification of the CTBT

Atmospheric measurement of radioactive xenon isotopes (radioxenon) plays a key role in remote monitoring of nuclear explosions, since it has a high capability to capture radioactive debris for a wide range of explosion scenarios. It is therefore a powerful tool in providing evidence for nuclear testing, and is one of the key components of the verification regime of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). The reliability of this method is largely based on a well-developed measurement technology. In the 1990s, with the prospect of the build-up of a monitoring network for the CTBT, new development of radioxenon equipment started. This article summarizes the physical and technical principles upon which the radioxenon technology is based and the advances the technology has undergone during the last 10 years. In contrast to previously used equipment, which was manually operated, the new generation of radioxenon monitoring equipment is designed for automated and continuous operation in remote field locations. Also the analytical capabilities of the equipment were strongly enhanced. Minimum detectable concentrations of the recently developed systems are well below 1 mBq/m³ for the key nuclide ¹³³Xe for sampling periods between 8 and 24 h. All the systems described here are also able to separately measure with low detection limits the radioxenon isotopes ^131mXe, ^133mXe and ¹³⁵Xe, which are also relevant for the detection of nuclear tests. The equipment has been extensively tested during recent years by operation in a laboratory environment and in field locations, by performing comparison measurements with laboratory type equipment and by parallel operation. These tests demonstrate that the equipment has reached a sufficiently high technical standard for deployment in the global CTBT verification regime.     

Comparison of Delivery Methods for Enhanced In Situ Remediation in Clay Till

Three methods for enhanced delivery of in situ remediation amendments in low-permeability deposits have been tested at a site in Denmark: pneumatic fracturing, direct-push delivery, and hydraulic fracturing. The testing was carried out at an uncontaminated part of a farm site, previously used for storage of chlorinated solvents, underlain by basal clay till with hydraulic conductivity ranging from 7.1× 10^–11 to 3.5 × 10^–7 m/s at testing depths 2.5 to 9.5 m b.s. Fluorescent tracers fluorescein and rhodamine WT were delivered. Tests of all three delivery methods have not been carried out at a single site before, and thus, this study provides unique data for comparison of enhanced delivery methods in both the vadose and saturated zone. Results show that pneumatic fracturing with nitrogen gas and propagation pressures of 1 to 9 bar had a distribution radius of less than 2 m, and produced dense networks of tracer-filled natural fractures above the redox boundary (0 to 3 m b.s.) and widely spaced, discrete, induced, tracer-filled subhorizontal fractures at depth (>3 m b.s.). Direct-push delivery at pressures of 8 to 30 bar had a distribution radius of approximately 1 m, distributed tracer primarily in natural fractures above the redox boundary and in discrete, closely spaced (but not merging) induced fractures below the redox boundary. Hydraulic fracturing with a sand-guar mixture at pressures of 0 to 6 bar produced an elliptical, asymmetrical, bowl-shaped fracture with a physical radius of approximately 3.5 m at 3 m b.s. The geometry of hydraulic fractures attempted emplaced at 6.5 and 9.5 m b.s. is uncertain, but clearly not horizontal as desired. The direct-push delivery method is robust and efficient for enhanced delivery at the clay till site in question, which based on thorough geological characterization is deemed a geologically representative basal clay till site.     

Submarine groundwater springs are characterized by distinct fish communities

The inflow of terrestrial groundwater into the ocean is increasingly recognized as an important local source of nutrients and pollutants to coastal ecosystems. Although there is evidence of a link between fresh submarine groundwater discharge (SGD)-derived nutrients and primary producer and primary consumer abundances, the effects of fresh SGD on the productivity of higher trophic levels such as ichthyofaunal communities remain unclear. To further investigate this relationship, we sampled three sites inside a coral reef lagoon in Mauritius: One site entailing six distinct groundwater springs, a site highly influenced by freshwater influx through the springs, and a strictly marine control site. Using remote underwater video surveys, we found that fish abundances were significantly higher at the groundwater springs than at the other two sampling sites.Principal component analyses showed that the springs and the spring-influenced part of the lagoon were best described by elevated water nutrient loadings, whereas the control site was characterized by higher water salinity and pH. Macroalgae cover was highest at the control site and the springs. Herbivores and invertivores dominated the fish community at the springs, in contrast to generalists at the control site. At the spring-influenced site, we mainly encountered high coral/turf algae cover and high abundances of associated fish feeding groups (territorial farmers, corallivores). Our results provide evidence of a fresh SGD-driven relationship between altered hydrography and distinct fish communities with elevated abundances at groundwater springs in a coral reef lagoon. These findings suggest that the management and assessment of secondary consumer productivity in tropical lagoons should take into account the effects of groundwater springs.     

Specific affinity for phosphate uptake and specific alkaline phosphatase activity as diagnostic tools for detecting phosphorus-limited phytoplankton and bacteria

We analyzed responses of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), bioavailable phosphate (PO₄), particulate phosphorus, turnover time of orthophosphate (T_t), and alkaline phosphatase activity (APA) to varying degrees of nutrient stress. The nutrient stress was evoked by different treatments in concentration and combination of inorganic nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), and labile organic carbon (glucose) to mesocosms in experiments carried out in eutrophic southern (Odense Fjord, Denmark) and northern (Tvärminne Archipelago, Finland) coastal zones of the Baltic Sea. Despite seasonal and geographical differences, similar responses were observed in both experiments. Low SRP (<100 nmol l^?1), shortT _t (<10 h), and increased levels of APA were observed in both N+P balanced and P deficient treatments, while the opposite trend was observed in P replete treatments. The shortestT _t and the highest APA were found when glucose was combined with N treatment. Bioavailable PO₄ was estimated usingT _t and P uptake rates as derived from stoichiometric conversion of carbon based primary and bacterial production. With shorterT _t, the PO₄ pool declined to <1 nmol-P l^?1, whereas the SRP background pool (difference between SRP and PO₄) remained relatively constant (c. 50 nmol l^?1). APA was inversely related to PO₄ but not to SRP. Responses of specific APA and specific affinity for PO₄ uptake, which are APA and PO₄ uptake rates (inverse ofT _t), respectively, normalized to the summed P biomass of phytoplankton and bacteria, responded consistently to the pattern and magnitude of nutrient limitation evoked in our experiments. Our results, together with a literature survey, suggest that both parameters can be useful in examining PO₄ availability for the natural phytoplankton and bacteria community in P starved aquatic systems.     

3D numerical modelling of bit–rock fracture mechanisms in percussive drilling with a multiple‐button bit

This paper considers numerical modelling of rock fracture induced by dynamic bit–rock interaction in percussive drilling. The work presented here extends the author's earlier research on the topic from the axisymmetric case to 3D case. The numerical method for modelling rock fracture includes a constitutive model for rock and a contact mechanics‐based technique to simulate the bit–rock interaction. The constitutive model is based on a combination of the recent viscoplastic consistency model, the isotropic damage concept and a parabolic compression cap. This model is improved here from its earlier state by calibrating the softening laws using fracture energies G_Ic and G_IIc in tension and compression, respectively. Moreover, the viscosity modulus in tension is calibrated based on the dynamic Brazilian disc test. With these enhancements, the developed method is applied to 3D case of the bit–rock interaction problem assuming one symmetry plane. Single impact with single and multiple‐button bits is simulated. In the latter case, an initial borehole is modelled in order to simulate the usual in‐situ drilling conditions. The different failure types observed in the experiments as well as the interaction between the buttons resulting in chipping are realistically captured in the simulations. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.