Environmental isotope investigation for the identification of source of springs observed in the hillock on the left flank of Gollaleru Earthen Dam,Andhra Pradesh,India

A hydrometric, hydrochemical and environmental isotopic study was conducted to identify the source and origin of observed springs on the foot of the hillock abutting the left flank of the Gollaleru earthen dam, Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh, India. Water samples (springs, reservoir water and groundwater) in and around the dam area were collected and analyzed for environmental isotopes (\(\updelta ^{18}\!\hbox {O}\), \(\updelta ^{2}\hbox {H}\) and \(^{3}\hbox {H}\)) and hydrochemistry. Reservoir level, spring discharges and physico-chemical parameters (temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, etc.) were monitored in-situ. Isotopic results indicated that the source of springs is from the Owk reservoir and groundwater contribution to the springs is insignificant. Based on hydrometric observations, it is inferred that the springs might be originated from the reservoir level of 209 m amsl. It is found that the lower spring discharges were derived from diffuse sources (seepage) which could be a mixture of reservoir water and the groundwater, while the relatively higher spring discharges were resulted from concentrated sources (leakage) from the reservoir. Thus, the study portraits the usefulness of isotope techniques in understanding the dam seepage/leakage related problems.     

First discovery of fossil winged seeds of <Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Pinus</Emphasis> L. (family Pinaceae) from the Indian Cenozoic and its palaeobiogeographic significance

The occurrences of Pinus L. (family Pinaceae) megafossils (cones and leaf remains) have been abundantly documented from the Cenozoic sediments of eastern Asia (Japan and China), but none has been confirmed from the Indian Cenozoic till date. Here, we describe Pinus arunachalensis Khan and Bera, sp. nov. on the basis of seed remains from the middle to late Miocene Siwalik sediments of the Dafla Formation exposed around West Kameng district in Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalaya. Seeds are winged, broadly oblong to oval in outline, 1.3–1.5 cm long and 0.4–0.6 cm broad (in the middle part), located basipetally and symmetrically to wing, cellular pattern of wing is seemingly undulatory and parallel with the long axis of the wing. So far, this report provides the first ever fossil record of Pinus winged seeds from India. This record suggests that Pinus was an important component of tropical-subtropical evergreen forest in the area during the Miocene and this group subsequently declined from the local vegetation probably because of the gradual intensification of MSI (monsoon index) from the Miocene to the present. We also review the historical phytogeography and highlight the phytogeographic implication of this genus.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Spartina alterniflora</Emphasis> Biomass Allocation and Temperature: Implications for Salt Marsh Persistence with Sea-Level Rise

To predict the impacts of climate change, a better understanding is needed of the foundation species that build and maintain biogenic ecosystems. Spartina alterniflora Loisel (smooth cordgrass) is the dominant salt marsh-building plant along the US Atlantic coast. It maintains salt marsh elevation relative to sea level by the accumulation of aboveground biomass, which promotes sediment deposition and belowground biomass, which accretes as peat. Peat accumulation is particularly important in elevation maintenance at high latitudes where sediment supply tends to be limited. Latitudinal variation in S. alterniflora growth was quantified in eight salt marshes from Massachusetts to South Carolina. The hypothesis that allocation to aboveground and belowground biomass is phenotypically plastic was tested with transplant experiments among a subset of salt marshes along this gradient. Reciprocal transplants revealed that northern S. alterniflora decreased allocation to belowground biomass when grown in the south. Some northern plants also died when moved south, suggesting that northern S. alterniflora may be stressed by future warming. Southern plants that were moved north showed phenotypic plasticity in biomass allocation, but no mortality. Belowground biomass also decomposed more quickly in southern marshes. Our results suggest that warming will lead northern S. alterniflora to decrease belowground allocation and that belowground biomass will decompose more quickly, thus decreasing peat accumulation. Gradual temperature increases may allow for adaptation and acclimation, but our results suggest that warming will lower the ability of salt marshes to withstand sea-level rise.     

Effect of hydrochloric acid on grain size analysis of the Quaternary red clay rich in tiny ferromanganese nodules,Jiangxi province,southern China

There are many tiny ferromanganese nodules that cannot be found and eliminated easily in Quaternary red clay in southern China. The existence of these tiny ferromanganese nodules may influence grain size analysis results. Therefore, this paper focuses on the effects of the ferromanganese nodules on the grain size analysis and the effects of hydrochloric acid (HCl) on removing these nodules. The experimental results showed that the nodules clearly influenced the results of grain size analysis. The tiny ferromanganese nodules increased the coarse fraction and show a low peak in the coarse fraction of >100 μm on the frequency curves. The addition of HCl in the pretreatment process of grain size analysis can eliminate the effects of these tiny nodules effectively. Additionally, the HCl reacts with clay minerals and causes a reduction of the <4 μm fraction.     

Statistical analysis and source rock of the Minim-Martap plateau bauxite,Cameroon

The Minim-Martap plateau bauxite deposit, located between the Minim and the Martap villages, is one of the 11 plateaus within the Minim-Martap bauxite region. The plateau has an elevation of 1294 m above sea level, with three to more 30 m thickness of bauxite horizon. These plateaus were formed as result of supergene weathering of volcanic rocks occurring as dissected flow basalt landscapes that form relatively flat plateau rising steeply from the surrounding granites. The bauxite deposit of the plateau is lateritic, with the surface of the plateau been completely covered by indurated caps. Seventeen bauxite samples were collected from the plateau and prepared for geochemical analysis. Whole rock analysis was carried out using the X-ray Fluorescence technique and ICP-MS was used for trace elements investigation. Statistical analysis reveals that average values of Al₂O₃ (54.87%), Fe₂O₃ (7.17%), SiO₂ (2.44%), and TiO₂ (4.54%) indicate the plateau bauxite deposit is an of a world class standard with very little impurities compared to the standard major element contents of bauxite (>?40% A1₂O₃, less than <?20% Fe₂O₃, and less than <?8% combined SiO₂). Abundant trace elements include Zr, Ce, Sr, V, Ba, La, Nd, Ga, and Nb. Weathering due to chemical alteration indices using the Ruxton ratio and CIA approaches revealed the plateau have undergone intense weathering process that formed the bauxite deposit. Three different classification systems indicate it as a low iron-rich bauxite deposit. Precursor rock investigation indicates the origin of the bauxite is mafic, basaltic andesite igneous rocks with intermediate pH (basic–acidic characteristic).     

Exploration for iron ore in Agbado-Okudu,Kogi State,Nigeria

This report details the result of geophysical exploration for iron ore; which involved vertical magnetic intensity (?Z) and gravity measurements, to delineate the geometry and depth extent of the deposit and acquiring quantitative and qualitative information for pre-drilling purposes in Agbado-Okudu. It is located about 3 km from Jakura along Lokoja-Jakura marble quarry and within low latitude precambrian basement complex district of Kogi State, Nigeria. A total of 517 magnetic measurement points along 16 traverses and 330 gravity reading along 11 profiles on the deposit in northeast–southwest azimuth were undertaken. The magnetic and gravity data enhancement involved linear regression curve fitting and fast Fourier transform, which were used to construct residual magnetic (RM) and gravity (RG) anomalies, analytic signal amplitude, Euler deconvolution at varying spectral indices (SI), power spectrum, and source parameter image (SPI), using the submenu of Geosoft Oasis Montaj software. Interpretation of the RM and RG anomalies revealed a primary causative body which perfectly correlates the positive anomalies and iron ore deposit, in form of a horizontal or gently dipping dyke with strike length of 600 m and average width of 110–130 m, within the gneiss complex in the north and trending south of the area. A secondary causative body associated with the negative anomalies and inferred as a vertical/near vertical thin sheet striking northeast–southwest coincided with the granitic and quartzitic intrusion. The NW–SE and E–W lineament trend conformed Kibarian and Liberian orogeny cycles of generally known structural trends in Nigeria, which shows that the iron ore deposit is structurally controlled. Depths to sources were estimated within range ≤ 2–24 m and 37.5–60 m, regarded as shallow and relatively deep depths, respectively. Ten vertical boreholes ranging in depth between 50 and 100 m are recommended, five of which require a priority attention to ascertain the thickness of the primary causative body.     

3D geomechanical modeling and estimating the compaction and subsidence of Fahlian reservoir formation (X-field in SW of Iran)

A geomechanical model can reveal the mechanical behavior of rocks and be used to manage the reservoir programs in a better mode. Fluid pressure will be reduced during hydrocarbon production from a reservoir. This reduction of pressure will increase the effective stress due to overburden sediments and will cause porous media compaction and surface subsidence. In some oil fields, the compacting reservoir can support oil and gas production. However, the phenomena can also cause the loss of wells and reduced production and also cause irreparable damage to the surface structures and affect the surrounding environment. For a detailed study of the geomechanical behavior of a hydrocarbon field, a 3D numerical model to describe the reservoir geomechanical characteristics is essential. During this study, using available data and information, a coupled fluid flow-geomechanic model of Fahlian reservoir formation in X-field in SW of Iran was constructed to estimate the amount of land subsidence. According to the prepared model, in this field, the maximum amount of the vertical stress is 110 MPa and the maximum amount of the horizontal stress is 94 MPa. At last, this model is used for the prediction of reservoir compaction and subsidence of the surface. The maximum value of estimated ground subsidence in the study equals to 29 mm. It is considered that according to the obtained values of horizontal and vertical movement in the wall of different wells, those movements are not problematic for casing and well production and also the surrounding environment.     

Comparison of NATM and umbrella arch method in terms of cost,completion time,and deformation

In all kinds of tunnel excavations, especially those excavated in cities, it is important to control surface settlements and prevent damage to the surface and subsurface structures. For this purpose, in weak rocks and soils, the umbrella arch method (UAM) has been used in addition to the new Austrian tunneling method (NATM). NATM and UAM are the best-known classical methods used in tunnel excavation. In classical tunneling, NATM is usually preferred in normal rocks. However, in some cases, NATM may be insufficient. UAM is a very effective alternative especially in soils and weak rocks. In soil and weak rocks, UAM is especially necessary to prevent excessive deformations. Selection of UAM or NATM is based on the following factors: cost comparison of NATM and UAM, allowable deformations, quality of rock or soil, application time of NATM and UAM, availability of skilled workers, and qualification level of the workers. Therefore, selecting the excavation method in these kinds of grounds is vital in terms of achieving the project goals in time, managing the project costs effectively, and controlling the probable deformations on nearby structures. A critical issue in successful tunneling application is the ability to evaluate and predict the deformations, costs, and project time. In this paper, application times, costs, and deformation effects are compared between NATM and UAM in sensitive regions at the Uskudar-Umraniye-Cekmekoy metro project (UUCMP). Also, efficiency of the deformation control of UAM is demonstrated by using the 2D numerical analysis method. UUCMP is part of the Istanbul metro network. The tunnels have a cross section of 75.60 m² for NATM and 83.42 m² for UAM. Geology in this section is composed of weak sandstone. Diabase and andesite dykes are also rarely observed. This study shows that the construction cost of UAM are 1.7 times more expensive than NATM. Although application time of UAM is 2.5 times longer than NATM, it is 2.5 times more efficient in controlling the deformations. This efficiency in controlling the deformations is confirmed via two-dimensional numerical analyses.     

Landfill site selection using combination of fuzzy logic and multi-attribute decision-making approach

During the last decades, growth of urbanization and industrialization led to an increase in solid waste generation. Landfilling is the most prevalent ultimate disposal method for the municipal solid wastes in developing countries. The rapid municipal solid waste generation in Markazi province (central part of Iran) causes the need for precision in finding a suitable landfill site selection. In the present study, 12 factors (environmental and socioeconomic factors) have been applied to select the landfill site in Markazi province, Iran. The different methods including the analytic network process (ANP) combined with fuzzy linguistic quantifier, ordered weighted average (OWA), and weighted linear combination (WLC) approach in geographic information system was applied to find an appropriate landfill site. The OWA operator function permits the evaluation of the wide spectrum of consequences (with different scenario) obtained from different management strategies. Results revealed that integration of fuzzy logic, ANP, and OWA provides flexible and better ideas compared to the Boolean logic and WLC to select a suitable landfill site.