Aquifer Classification for the UIC Program: Prototype Studies in New Mexico

Three case studies from New Mexico illustrate methods by which aquifers can be classified for purposes of the Federal Underground Injection Control program. The principal technique involves preparation of hydrogeologic maps or cross sections which display information on the permeability of rock units and the dissolved solids content of formation fluids. Because deep water wells are lacking in most areas, the analysis normally requires considerable interpretation of geological and geophysical logs collected by energy and mineral companies, plus use of a general model or concept about regional hydrogeology. Injection of waste fluids into aquifers containing water with less than 10,000 mg/1 dissolved solids is not allowed unless an exemption is justified by economic, engineering and other factors. Based on the case studies, regulatory exemptions will be possible for aquifers which are hydrocarbon or mineral-producing, or which are important for brine disposal purposes.     

A tritium-exchange method for obsidian hydration shell measurement

A new radiochemical method for measuring the amount of water in the hydrated layer on the surface of obsidians exchanges tritiated water with the water in the layer (20 μl of 5 Ci ml^?1 at 90°C for 10 days) and then back-exchanges it (in 150 ml of water at 35°C for ～ 200 hr.). The activity of the back-exchange water (F) is monitored by liquid scintillation counting of aliquots extracted at known time intervals (t). The activity so measured is then related to the thickness of the hydration rim. A sheet diffusion model shows that the thickness of the hydration shell (l) is inversely proportional to the slope of the F vs.$\text{t}{}^{\mathrm{<mtext>1</mtext><mtext>2</mtext>}}$ plot. Comparison of l-values so obtained between obsidians, whose age (x) is inferred from archaeological occupation layers containing radiocarbon-dated wood and charcoal, suggests a relationship between l and x. Implications for New Zealand prehistory are briefly considered. The technique, which is non-destructive, appears particularly applicable to young glasses where the development of hydrated layers may be inadequate for accurate optical measurement.     

The nature of olefins and carboxyl groups in an Australian brown coal resin

The chemical structure of the resin from an Australian soft brown coal (Yallourn) has been investigated by cross-polarization nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy with magic angle spinning (¹³C CP MAS NMR). Some additional solution ¹H and ¹³C data were also obtained. Solid-state experiments were performed with and without a delay period before data acquisition. The resulting free induction decays were Fourier transformed with respect to acquisition time and delay period to produce two-dimensional solid-state spectra. Assignments made from the spectra clearly demonstrate that the gross chemical structure of the Yallourn resin is best described as a polymerized diterpenoid with one axial carboxylic group and two double bonds. One double bond is trisubstituted, the other is monosubstituted. After consideration of various mechanisms for polymerization of diterpenoid units during biogenesis and coalification, it was concluded that polymerization occurs at the C₁₅ carbon atoms in the diterpenoids without cyclization of the methylene units at C₈.     

Dynamics of a confined lava flow on Kilauea volcano,Hawaii

This paper presents a new method of analysing lava flow deposits which allows the velocity, discharge rate and rheological properties of channelled moving lavas to be calculated. The theory is applied to a lava flow which was erupted on Kilauea in July 1974. This flow came from a line of fissures on the edge of the caldera and was confined to a pre-existing gully within 50 m of leaving the vent. The lava drained onto the floor of the caldera when the activity stopped, but left wall and floor deposits which showed that the lava banked up as it flowed around each of the bends. Field surveys established the radius of curvature of each bend and the associated lava levels, and these data, together with related field and laboratory measurements, are used to study the rheology of the lava. The results show the flow to have been fast moving but still laminar, with a mean velocity of just over 8 m s^–1; the lava had a low or negligible yield strength and viscosities in the range 85–140 Pa s. An extension of the basic method is considered, and the possibility of supercritical flow discussed.     

A vesicularity index for pyroclastic deposits

The vesicularity of juvenile clasts in pyroclastic deposits gives information on the relative timing of vesiculation and fragmentation, and on the role of magmatic volatiles versus external water in driving explosive eruptions. The vesicularity index and range are defined as the arithmetic mean and total spread of vesicularity values, respectively. Clast densities are measured for the 16–32 mm size fraction by water immersion techniques and converted to vesicularities using measured dense-rock equivalent densities. The techniques used are applied to four case studies involving magmas of widely varying viscosities and discharge rates: Kilauea Iki 1959 (basalt), Eifel tuff rings (basanite), Mayor Island cone-forming deposits (peralkaline rhyolite) and Taupo 1800 B.P. (calc-alkaline rhyolite). Previous theoretical studies suggested that a spectrum of clast vesicularities should be seen, depending on the magma viscosity, eruption rate, and the presence and timing of magma: water interaction. The new data are consistent with these predictions. In magmatic dry eruptions the vesicularity index lies uniformly in the range 70%–80% regardless of magma viscosity. For high viscosities and eruption rates the vesicularity ranges are narrow (< 25%), but broaden to between 30% and 50% as the viscosity and eruption rates are lowered and the volatiles and magma can de-couple. In phreatomagmatic wet eruptions, widely varying clast vesicularities reflect complex variations in the relative timing of vesiculation and water-induced fragmentation. Magma:water interaction at an early stage greatly reduces the vesicularity indices (< 40%) and broadens the ranges (as high as 80%), whereas late-stage interaction has only a minor effect on the index and broadens the range to a limited extent. Clast vesicularity represents a useful third parameter in addition to dispersal and fragmentation to characterise pyroclastic deposits.     

Ritz vectors and generation criteria for mode superposition analysis

A generation procedure of Ritz vectors to control the inclusion of static effect and the number of vectors in mode superposition dynamic analysis is presented. The original algorithm of the Ritz vectors¹⁵ is modified to improve stability in the generation procedure and to include the use of static residual. To reject unimportant Ritz vectors, cut-off criteria, which are based on the participation of mass distribution and spatial load distribution, are proposed. Numerical examples are presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the derived Ritz vectors over the eigenvectors and the performance of the cutoff criteria in the mode superposition dynamic analysis.     

Analysis of the observed seismic response of a highway bridge

Strong-motion accelerograms obtained on the San Juan Bautista 156/101 Separation Bridge during the 6 August 1979 Coyote Lake, California, earthquake are used to examine the response of this multiple-span bridge to moderate levels of earthquake loading. Although the bridge was not damaged, the records are of significant engineering interest as they are the first to be recorded on a highway bridge structure in North America. A technique of system identification is used to determine optimal modal parameters for linear models which can closely replicate the observed time-domain seismic response of the bridge. Time variations in frequency and damping in the horizontal response are identified using a moving-window analysis. A three-dimensional finite element model is developed to study the bridge response in detail. The first two horizontal modal frequencies computed from this model are in excellent agreement with information obtained during the system identification analysis provided the finite element model's expansion joints are locked, preventing relative translational motions from occurring across the joints. Locking is confirmed by the observed seismic deformations of the structure in the fundamental mode. Fundamental vertical frequencies of the individual spans, predicted by the finite element model, are in very good agreement with ambient vibration test data.     

Effects of red mud on marine animals

Red mud is a waste product in the reduction of bauxite in the production of aluminium. The exact composition of red mud depends on the source of the bauxite and its treatment during production. This variation has been responsible for conflicting reports about the damage caused by dumping red mud at sea.     

Pseudotachylitic breccias from fault zones in the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: evidence of autometasomatism and post-brecciation alteration processes

Summary Pseudotachylitic breccias, associated with either bedding-parallel or normal faults, are abundant in the northern and northwestern parts of the gold- and uranium-rich Witwatersrand Basin in South Africa. They are particularly abundant in a zone tangential to the Vredefort Dome, a structure which is now widely accepted to be the eroded remnant of the central uplift of the originally 250 to 300 km wide Vredefort impact structure.Several of these fault zones were sampled along vertical traverses that included both fault breccias and host rocks. Geochemical analyses were undertaken to investigate the processes involved in fault rock formation. In addition, the temporal relationships of fault activity to regional geological events was studied. Detailed petrographic analysis shows evidence for strong hydrothermal overprints of the faults related to breccia formation (thus termed autometasomatism), as well as post-formational alteration. Mixing between two or more precursor lithologies and fluid alteration affected both the fault zones and their wall-rocks. A wide spectrum of trace elements, including Au and U, has been locally mobilised and redeposited by these processes.These fault zones, some of which are of basin-wide significance, were important channels for fluids that also modified the distribution of base metals in the Witwatersrand Basin. The regionally separated locations of our study areas suggest that these processes affected at least a major part of the basin. However, as the chemical characteristics determined for the fault zones differ from site to site, it is likely that the metals were only locally remobilised in the vicinity of fault zones or to previously hydrothermally altered country rock. Subsequent redeposition of metals was limited to the regimes in and around such fault zones.

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Pseudotachylitische Brekzien aus Störungszonen des Witwatersrand-Beckens: Hinweise auf Autometasomatose und Alteration nach der Brekzienbildung

Zusammenfassung Pseudotachylitische Brekzien, entweder an schicht-parallelen oder normalen Verwerfungen, kommen häufig im nördlichen und nordwestlichen Teil des Gold- und Uranreichen Witwatersrand Beckens in Südafrika vor. Man hat sie hauptsächlich von einem tangentialen Bereich um den Vredefort Dom beschrieben. Der Dom ist der tieferodierte Rest der zentralen Aufwölbung der Vredefort Impaktstruktur, die ursprünglich linen Durchmesser von mindestens 250 Km hatte.Einige dieser Verwerfungszonen wurden entlang von Traversen beprobt, die Verwerfungsbrekzien sowie deren Nebengesteine beinhalteten, und geochemisch mit dem Ziel untersucht, die Prozesse bei der Brekzien-Bildung und die zeitlichen Verhältnisse von Verwerfungen und regionalgeologischen Ereignissen zu erfassen. Petrographische Analysen zeigten, daß die Verwerfungszonen im Zusammenhang mit der Brekzierungsphase stark hydrothermal überprägt wurden (ein Prozess, der daher als Autometasomatose bezeichnet wird) und eine zweite Überprägungsphase erfahren haben, die nach der Brekzierung stattfand. Es wird gezeigt, daß sowohl Mischung von wenigstens zwei Mutter-Gesteinskomponenten und Flüssigkeitsüberprägung, die Verwerfungszonen und Nebengesteine betraf, wichtige Rollen in der Bestimmung der chemischen Charakteristiken der untersuchten Zonen spielten. Viele Elemente, darunter Gold und Uran, wurden durch diese Prozesse lokal mobilisiert und wieder abgelagert.Diese Verwerfungszonen, von denen einige eine beckenweite Bedeutung besitzen, agierten als wichtige Kanäle für Flüssigkeiten, die die Verbreitung von wichtigen Metallen im Witwatersrand Becken modifizieren konnten. Da unsere Untersuchungsorte weit voneinander getrennt liegen, muß angenommen werden, daß diese Prozesse wenigstens weite Teile des Beckens beeinflußten. Da jedoch die chemischen Charakteristika der untersuchten Zonen von Fall zu Fall unterschiedlich sind, liegt die Vermutung nahe, daß Metalle höchstens lokal mobilisiert und umgelagert wurden und daß dies vermutlich im wesentlichen in der Nähe von existierenden Reefs stattfand. Es ist ferner klar, daß die Umlagerung von Metallen auf die unmittelbaren Bereiche dieser Verwerfungszonen beschränkt war.

     

Emerging patterns of restructured farm businesses in Eastern Germany

This paper provides an overview of the process of restructuring farm businesses in the Former German Democratic Republic. It considers political, economic and social factors in the restructuring process, including the resolution of historical injustices and mediation between competing interest groups. It concludes that a large scale non-family business structure is emerging despite rather than because of government policy, and that restructuring has been not been achieved without social costs that must also be addressed.