Placing geography in the New Zealand Curriculum

The design of a school‐based geography curriculum presents opportunities and challenges for teachers in New Zealand secondary schools. This article discussed the considerations that teachers need to make when developing a school‐based curriculum that is suited to the needs and interests of the students in their school and community. An example of a programme that has been developed to meet the needs and interests of students in a particular secondary school in Christchurch, New Zealand, was outlined.     

Pyrolysis of modern wetland sediment: extracting climate records from fens in the Uinta Mountains and Fish Lake Plateau,Utah, USA

Rock‐Eval pyrolysis provides a quick, relatively inexpensive means of characterizing organic‐rich strata, and has been used for decades to understand global petroleum systems. Although designed to characterize ancient kerogens, pyrolysis is increasingly being used to understand Holocene systems as well. The ability of this technique to distinguish between types of preserved organic matter is useful in characterizing climatic evolution, particularly in systems sensitive to climatic fluctuation such as isolated fens and bogs. Cores collected from the Tokewanna and Garden Basin Cattail fens in central/eastern Utah exhibit variability of organic source, with the mixture of terrestrial and algal sources varying through time, as shown through the hydrogen index (HI) and oxygen index pyrolysis parameters. A sediment core was collected at each fen, and 176 samples were taken from the cores at 6‐cm intervals. Total organic carbon (TOC) for all samples ranges from 1.3 to 44.2%, with an average of 18.2% TOC. Samples range from 84 to 687 HI, equivalent to Type I (lacustrine algal) to Type III (terrestrial) organic material (OM). Variability in HI response represents mixing of the two OM sources, and the relative amount of aqueous organic input can be estimated through time based on age‐calibrated HI curves at the two sites. The balance of organic input serves as an accurate, high‐resolution proxy for climate, and calibration with palynological data near both sites confirms patterns shown by pyrolysis, showing the utility of this method in quickly, affordably and accurately characterizing Holocene sediments for use in understanding palaeoclimate.     

Book reviews

AUSTRALIA AND ITS URBAN “CENTRES (Urbanization of the Earth No. 6) by B. Hofmeister. 19 × 28 cm, xii and 254 pages. Gebruder Borntraeger: Berlin 1988 (ISBN 3 443 37008 X) DM130 (hard).

CONTEMPORARY AUSTRALIA: Explorations in Economy, Society and Geography by D. J. Walmsley and A. D. Sorenson. 19 × 25 cm, xxiv and 328 pages. Longman Cheshire: Melbourne 1988 (ISBN 0 58271150 9) $A29.95 (soft).

WATERING THE GARDEN STATE: Water, Land and Community in Victoria 1834–1988 by J. M. Powell. 16 × 24 cm, xv and 319 pages. Allen & Unwin: Sydney 1989 (ISBN 0 04 3600 74 3) SA39.95 (hard); (ISBN 0 04 364024 9) SA24.95 (soft).

THE BUREAUCRATS DOMAIN. Space and the Public Interest in Victoria 1836–1884 by R. Wright. 15 × 23 cm, xv and 350 pages. Oxford University Press: Melbourne 1989 (ISBN 0 19 554866 3) $A39.95 (hard).

SOUTHERN APPROACHES: Geography in New Zealand edited by P. G. Holland and W. B. Johnston. 17 × 25 cm, 361 pages. New Zealand Geographical Society: Christchurch 1987 (ISBN 0 9597 863 0 9) $A56.50 (soft).     

Flood basalts and metallogeny: The lithospheric mantle connection

Continental flood basalts, derived from mantle plumes that rise from the convecting mantle and possibly as deep as the core–mantle boundary, are major hosts for world-class Ni–Cu–PGE ore deposits. Each plume may have a complex history and heterogeneous composition. Therefore, some plumes may be predisposed to be favourable for large-scale Ni–PGE mineralisation (“fertile”).Geochemical data from 10 large igneous provinces (LIPs) have been collected from the literature to search for chemical signatures favourable for Ni–PGE mineralisation. The provinces include Deccan, Kerguelen, Ontong Java, Paraná, Ferrar, Karoo, Emeishan, Siberia, Midcontinent and Bushveld. Among these LIPs, Bushveld, Siberia, Midcontinent, Emei Mt and Karoo are “fertile”, hosting magmatic ore deposits or mineralisation of various type, size and grade. They most commonly intruded through, or on the edges of, Archaean–Paleoproterozoic cratonic blocks. In contrast, the “barren” LIPs have erupted through both continental and oceanic crustal terranes of various ages.Radiogenic isotopic signatures indicate that almost all parental LIP magmas are generated from deep-seated mantle plumes, and not from the more widespread depleted asthenospheric mantle source: this confirms generally accepted plume models. However, several important geochemical signatures of LIPs have been identified in this study that can discriminate between those that are “fertile” or “barren” in terms of their Ni–PGE potential.The fertile LIPs generally contain a relatively high proportion of primitive melts that are high in MgO and Ni, low in Al₂O₃ and Na₂O, and are highly enriched in most of the strongly incompatible elements such as K, P, Ba, Sr, Pb, Th, Nb, and LREE. They have relatively high Os contents (≥ 0.03 to 10 ppb) and low Re/Os (< 10). The fertile LIP basalts display trends of Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic variation intermediate between the depleted plume and an EM1-type mantle composition (and thus could represent a mixing of these two source types), and have elevated Ba/Th, Ba/Nb and K/Ti ratios. These elemental and isotopic signatures suggest that interaction between plume-related magmas and ancient cratonic lithospheric mantle with pre-existing Ni- and PGE-rich sulfide phases may have contributed significantly to the PGE and Ni budget of the fertile flood basalts and eventually to the mineralisation. This observation is consistent with the location of fertile LIPs adjacent to deep old lithospheric roots (as inferred from tectonic environment and also seen in global tomographic images) and has predictive implications for exploration models.Barren LIPs contain fewer high-MgO lavas. The barren LIP lavas in general have low Os contents (mostly ≤ 0.02 ppb) with high Re/Os (10–≥ 200). They show isotopic variations between plume and EM2 geochemical signatures and have high Rb/Ba ratios. These signatures may indicate involvement of deep recycled material in the mantle sources or crustal contamination for barren LIPs, but low degrees of interaction with old lithospheric-type roots.     

Microbial remains in some earliest Earth rocks: Comparison with a potential modern analogue

Carbonaceous matter (CM) from ca. 3.5 Ga hydrothermal black cherts of the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia and the Barberton Greenstone Belt of South Africa yielded transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images that are suggestive of microbial remains and possible remnants of microbial cell walls. These are compared to a potential modern analogue, the hyperthermophilic Methanocaldococcus jannaschii, derived from an active seafloor hydrothermal environment and cultured under similar conditions. A striking resemblance to the early Archaean forms was evident in wall structure and thermal degradation mode. Cell disintegration of the cultures occurred at 100 °C marking the limits of life. Complete disintegration, deformation and shrinkage occurred at 132 °C. A multidisciplinary approach to the characterisation of the CM was undertaken using organic petrology, TEM coupled with electron dispersive spectral analysis (EDS), high resolution TEM (HRTEM) to determine molecular ordering, and elemental and carbon isotope geochemistry. Reflectance measurements of the CM to determine thermal stress yielded a range of values corresponding to several populations, and pointing to different sources and processes. The δ¹³C values of Dresser Formation CM (−36.5 to −32.1‰) are negatively correlated with TOC (0.13–0.75%) and positively correlated with C/N ratio (134–569), which is interpreted to reflect the relative abundance of high R_o/oxidised/recycled CM and preferential loss of ¹²C and N during thermal maturation. TEM observations, inferred carbon isotopic heterogeneity and isotope fractionations of −27 to −32‰ are consistent with the activity of chemosynthetic microbes in a seafloor hydrothermal system where rapid silicification at relatively low temperature preserved the CM.     

Magma sources and gold mineralisation in the Mount Leyshon and Tuckers Igneous Complexes, Queensland, Australia: U-Pb and Hf isotope evidence

In situ LAM-ICPMS U-Pb, Hf-isotope and trace-element analyses of zircon have been used to evaluate the relative contributions of juvenile mantle and crustal sources to the intrusive rocks of the mafic to intermediate, gold-poor Tuckers Igneous Complex (TIC), and the spatially and temporally related, felsic Mount Leyshon Igneous Complex (MLIC), which hosts a gold-rich porphyry system.

The TIC intrusions range in age from 304.2 ± 9.1 Ma to 288.5 ± 6.4 Ma, and the MLIC intrusions from 291.0 ± 4.8 Ma to 288 ± 6 Ma. Cross-cutting relationships define the intrusion sequence from oldest to youngest; Diorite, Monzodiorite, Mafic Granodiorite and Biotite Microgranite within the TIC; Early Dyke, Southern Porphyry and Late Dyke within the MLIC.

Zircons from the earliest rock type within each complex have a wide range in _Hf (5.2 to 14.8 for the TIC Diorite, 2.0 to 12.4 for the MLIC Early Dykes) suggesting the mixing of juvenile and crustal magmas. This interpretation is supported by trace-element data that show the presence of two distinct zircon populations in the MLIC Early Dyke. The later intrusive rocks have narrower ranges in _Hf (typically < 4 _Hf units) and trace-element patterns of zircon. This homogeneity suggests derivation from magmas produced by further mixing and fractional crystallisation of the TIC Diorite and the MLIC Early Dyke magmas respectively. A greater crustal contribution to the gold-rich MLIC is inferred from the range of median _Hf (3.2 to 4.5 for the MLIC, 5.4 to 8.7 for the TIC). We suggest that the MLIC was derived by melting of more felsic crustal rocks, and with less input from juvenile mantle, then the TIC; it was not derived by fractional crystallisation of an intermediate to mafic TIC-like magma. Modelling of Hf isotope data yields a mean model age of 1040 ± 10 Ma (at ¹⁷⁶Lu/¹⁷⁷Hf = 0.015) for the crustal component in both complexes.

Gold was precipitated in the MLIC Breccia during the emplacement of the Late Dykes. The isotopically homogenous nature of the Late Dykes suggests that no additional juvenile-mantle input was involved at the mineralisation stage. This supports a model in which gold and other metals were indigenous to the Late Dykes magma and were concentrated by magma differentiation and fluid-evolution processes.     

Information, uncertainty and decision making in site investigation for rock engineering

Although there is general awareness that uncertainty, information and decision making are key elements of site investigation, there has previously been little comprehensive attempt to formalize these factors in the site investigation process. In modern design, rock engineering is considered as a system and it is necessary to establish the key variables and interactions between the variables within the system as a precursor to design. Then, questions concerning (i) the information required to characterize the system, (ii) the uncertainty associated with this information, and (iii) the influence that this has on decision making, naturally arise and need to be addressed. We consider the application of information theory to geotechnical engineering through interpretation of informatic concepts in a rock mechanics context. Examples are then given, concentrating on the ideas of information received in sequential phases of site investigation, the information content of rock-mass classification systems, and the information content of scalar and vector quantities using discontinuity frequency as an example. In the concluding section, there are recommendations for making improvements to site investigation using information theory.     

Investigation of Possible Contamination of Shallow Ground Water by Deeply Injected Liquid Industrial Wastes

The objective of this study was to assess the possible impact of deep well disposal operations, conducted between 1958 and 1974, on the ground water quality in a shallow fresh water aquifer beneath Sarnia, Ontario, Canada. Because of the breakout of formation fluids in Sarnia and Port Huron, Michigan, in the early 1970s, it had been hypothesized that liquid waste from the disposal zone in bedrock had leaked through numerous abandoned oil, gas, and salt wells in the area up to the shallow fresh water aquifer and from there to the surface.
A monitoring well network of 29 5cm (2 inch) diameter piezometers was established in the thin sand and shale aquifer system, which exists between 30 and 70m (100 and 230 feet) below ground surface. In addition, a 300m (1000 foot) deep borehole was drilled and instrumented with a Westbay multilevel casing, which permitted sampling of the disposal zone.
Ground water samples from the shallow monitoring wells and the Westbay multilevel casing were analyzed for volatiles by GC/MS. Those volatile aromatics that were conspicuously present in the deep disposal zone, e.g., ethyl toluenes and trimethyl benzene, were not detected in the shallow monitoring wells. Thus, if contaminants from the disposal zone did indeed migrate to the shallow aquifer, contamination was not widespread and probably consisted mostly of displaced chloride-rich formation waters.     

Venusian highlands: geoid to topography ratios and their implications

Using Pioneer Venus line-of-sight gravity data and orbit simulation procedures, we have estimated apparent depths of isostatic compensation (ADCs) for twelve Venusian highland features: Asteria, Atla, Bell, Beta, Ovda, Phoebe, Tellus, Thetis and Ulfrun Regiones, and Nokomis, Gula and Sappho Montes. ADCs range from 50 km to 270 km; half of the values are less than 100 km. Using these ADCs, we estimate geoid to topography ratios (GTRs) for each area to allow comparison with convection calculations and with terrestrial data for oceanic hot spots, swells and plateaus. The geoid is estimated in the wavenumber domain from the isostatic formula, using the topography and ADC for each region. In the space domain, the GTR is equal to the least squares slope of the linear fit of the geoid to the topography. The resulting GTR range is 7–31 m/km, which is much higher than terrestrial oceanic values (−1 to 5 m/km). The features fall into two distinct groups, one with a GTR range of 7–13 m/km, and one with a range of 19–25 m/km. The exception is Beta Regio, which has a GTR of 31 m/km. A model for thermal thinning of a 100 km thick lithosphere fits all values in the lower GTR group to within one standard deviation. Airy compensation could also be present, but cannot fully compensate these features. Partial dynamic compensation of the lower GTR group in combination with lithospheric mechanisms is also possible, but not required to fit the data. The upper GTR range, 19–25 m/km, can be fit with an upper mantle, constant viscosity convection model. The large GTR values are inconsistent with the presence of a low viscosity zone. If more than one compensation mechanism is present in the regions in the higher GTR group, the GTRs will be underestimated in terms of a dynamic interpretation. We thus fit the convection models to the upper end of the GTR range, 25 m/km. Rayleigh numbers in the range 10⁴–10⁶ will produce a GTR of 25 m/km when combined with conductive lid thicknesses of 85–150 km. The 6 m/km range in both of the GTR groups is probably due to varying degrees of crustal and thermal compensation, combined with dynamic compensation in the upper GTR group. The difference between terrestrial and Venusian GTR ranges can be explained largely by the lack of a low viscosity zone on Venus.