Galaxies in clusters: the observational characteristics of bow shocks, wakes and tails

The dynamical signatures of the interaction between galaxies in clusters and the intracluster medium (ICM) can potentially yield significant information about the structure and dynamical history of clusters. To develop our understanding of this phenomenon we present results from numerical modelling of the galaxy–ICM interaction, as the galaxy moves through the cluster. The simulations have been performed for a broad range of ICM temperatures ( kT _cl=1, 4 and 8 keV), representative of poor clusters or groups through to rich clusters.
There are several dynamical features that can be identified in these simulations. For supersonic galaxy motion, a leading bow shock is present, and also a weak gravitationally focused wake or tail behind the galaxy (analogous to Bondi–Hoyle accretion). For galaxies with higher mass replenishment rates and a denser interstellar medium (ISM), the dominant feature is a dense ram-pressure stripped tail. In line with other simulations, we find that the ICM/galaxy–ISM interaction can result in complex time-dependent dynamics, with ram-pressure stripping occurring in an episodic manner.
In order to facilitate this comparison between the observational consequences of dynamical studies and X-ray observations we have calculated synthetic X-ray flux and hardness maps from these simulations. These calculations predict that the ram-pressure stripped tail will usually be the most visible feature, though in nearby galaxies the bow shock preceding the galaxy should also be apparent in deeper X-ray observations. We briefly discuss these results and compare them with X-ray observations of galaxies where there is evidence of such interactions.     

X-ray-luminous radio supernovae in the centre of M82?

We investigate the X-ray emission from the central regions of the prototypical starburst galaxy M82. Previous observations have shown a bright central X-ray point source, with suggestions as to its nature including a low-luminosity active galactic nucleus or an X-ray binary. A new analysis of ROSAT HRI observations finds four X-ray point sources in the central kiloparsec of M82, and we identify radio counterparts for the two brightest X-ray sources. The counterparts are probably young radio supernovae (SNe) and are amongst the most luminous and youthful SNe in M82. We therefore suggest that we are seeing X-ray emission from young SNe in M82, and in particular that the brightest X-ray source is associated with the radio source 41.95+57.5. We discuss the implications of these observations for the evolution of X-ray-luminous SNe.     

The energetics and mass loss of the dwarf starburst Markarian 33

We present ROSAT HRI X-ray data and optical imaging of the important dwarf starburst Markarian 33. We find an extended, complex, shell-like morphology in the X-ray emission, with an extent of ∼     , coincident with the bright star-forming regions at the centre of the galaxy. The physical extent of this X-ray emission from Mrk 33 is very similar to the observed H α emission, and suggests that the bulk of the X-ray emission is coming from an expanding superbubble.
We estimate the age and mass of Mrk 33's starburst to be 5.8 Myr and     respectively, with the energy injection rate in the central regions of the galaxy being ∼10⁴¹ erg s⁻¹, while the associated mass-loss rate from the star-forming regions is estimated to be ∼0.2 M_⊙ yr⁻¹. We suggest that the X-ray emission is predominantly powered by starburst-type activity, and argue that a blow-out in the form of a galactic wind is the most likely fate for Mrk 33, resulting in the loss of most of the galaxy's metal-enriched material and a small fraction (<1 per cent) of the ISM.     

High-grade metamorphism, dehydration and crustal melting: a reinvestigation based on new experiments in the silica-saturated portion of the system KAlO2–MgO–SiO2–H2O–CO2 at P≤ 1.5 GPa

The system KAlO₂–MgO–SiO₂–H₂O–CO₂ has long been used as a model for the processes of granulite-facies metamorphism and the development of orthopyroxene-bearing mineral assemblages through the breakdown of biotite-bearing assemblages. There has been considerable controversy regarding the role of carbon dioxide in metamorphism and partial melting. We performed new experiments in this system (at pressures of 342 to 1500 MPa with T between 710 and 1045 °C and X ^Fl _H2O between 0.05 and 1.00), accurately locating most of the dehydration and melting equilibria in P-T-X ^Fl _H2O space. The most important primary result is that the univariant reaction Phl + Qtz + Fl = En + Sa + melt must be almost coincident with the fluid-absent reaction (Phl + Qtz = En + Sa + melt) in the CO₂-free subsystem. In conjunction with the results of previous measurements of CO₂ solubility in silicate melts and phase equilibrium experiments, our theoretical analysis and experiments suggest that CO₂ cannot act as a flux for partial melting. Crustal melting in the presence of H₂O–CO₂ mixed fluids will always occur at temperatures higher than with pure H₂O fluid present. Magmas produced by such melting will be granitic (s.l.) in composition, with relatively high SiO₂ and low MgO contents, irrespective of the H₂O–CO₂ ratio in any coexisting fluid phase. We find no evidence that lamprophyric magmas could be generated by partial fusion of quartz-saturated crustal rocks. The granitic melts formed will not contain appreciable dissolved CO₂. The channelled passage of hot CO₂-rich fluids can cause local dehydration of the rocks through which they pass. In rock-dominated (as opposed to fluid-dominated) systems, minor partial melting can also occur in veins initially filled with CO₂-rich fluid, as dehydration and local disequilibrium drive the fluid towards H₂O-rich compositions. However, CO₂ is unlikely to be a significant agent in promoting regional granulite-grade metamorphism, melting, magma generation, metasomatism or long-range silicate mass transfer in Earth's crust. The most viable model for the development of granulite-facies rocks involves the processes of fluid-absent partial melting and withdrawal of the melt phase to higher crustal levels. Received: 28 November 1996 / Accepted: 25 June 1997     

Empirical and Numerical Modeling of T-phase Propagation from Ocean to Land

—?T-phase propagation from ocean onto land is investigated by comparing data from hydrophones in the water column with data from the same events recorded on island and coastal seismometers. Several events located on Hawaii and the emerging seamount Loihi generated very large amplitude T phases that were recorded at both the preliminary IMS hydrophone station at Point Sur and land-based stations along the northern California coast. We use data from seismic stations operated by U. C. Berkeley along the coast of California, and from the PG&;E coastal California seismic network, to estimate the T-phase transfer functions. The transfer function and predicted signal from the Loihi events are modeled with a composite technique, using normal mode-based numerical propagation codes to calculate the hydroacoustic pressure field and an elastic finite difference code to calculate the seismic propagation to la nd-based stations. The modal code is used to calculate the acoustic pressure and particle velocity fields in the ocean off the California coast, which is used as input to the finite difference code TRES to model propagation onto land. We find both empirically and in the calculations that T phases observed near the conversion point consist primarily of surface waves, although the T phases propagate as P waves after the surface waves attenuate. Surface wave conversion occurs farther offshore and over a longer region than body wave conversion, which has the effect that surface waves may arrive at coastal stations before body waves. We also look at the nature of T phases after conversion from ocean to land by examining far inland T phases. We find that T phases propagate primarily as P waves once they are well inland from the coast, and can be observed in some cases hundreds of kilometers inland. T-phase conversion at tenuates higher frequencies, however we find that high frequency energy from underwater explosion sources can still be observed at T-phase stations.     

Normal Mode Composition of Earthquake T Phases

— Understanding the nature of the coupling between the underwater acoustic field and the land seismic field is important for evaluating the performance of the T-phase stations in the International Monitoring System for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. For upslope propagation in an ocean environment, the places where underwater acoustic field energy couples into the land seismic field are determined to first approximation by the local water depth and the normal mode composition of the acoustic energy. Therefore, the use of earthquake-generated T phases as natural probes of water-to-land coupling characteristics is aided by knowledge of their modal composition. Data collected by a 200-element, 3000-m-aperture vertical hydrophone array during a 1989 experiment in the deep northeast Pacific Ocean are used to determine the mode composition of T-phase arrivals from two m_b 4.1 earthquakes near the w est coast of the U.S., one occurring offshore and the other on land. Results from an eigenanalysis approach and conventional mode decomposition for the two events are consistent and show that at 5?Hz, the offshore event's arrivals have higher-order mode content compared to those from the event on land. Single hydrophone recordings at Pt. Sur of two m_b 4.4 Hawaiian events in 1996 and 1997, one occurring offshore and the second on land, display time-frequency arrival structures that are explainable by the dispersion characteristics over the oceanic path. Although other effects due to complex source time functions and shear wave and dispersive propagation effects along the initial land path cannot be separated with these single element data, differences in these two events' arrival structures suggest differences in normal mode content consistent with those seen in the pair of 1989 events. Ocean-path dispersion also appears to play a significant role in determining the i n-water arrival structure from a 1995 French nuclear test at Mururoa. Recordings of two Hawaiian events in 1997 by the T-phase station VIB and the seismic station at Berkeley illustrate that the water-land coupling confuses the relative timing between normal modes, resulting in apparent loss of information about the source.     

CPR sampling: the technical background, materials and methods, consistency and comparability

The Continuous Plankton Recorder has been deployed for 70 years. Although modifications to the machine have been relatively minor, there has been a steady increase in the speed at which it is towed, creating a need to quantify what effects this may have had on its sampling characteristics. Additionally, because the CPR database is one of the longest and most geographically extensive biological time series in the world, and scientists are currently focusing on gaining understanding about climate-induced ecological changes, there is increasing pressure to quantify the sampling performance and relate the CPR data to data collected by other plankton samplers. Many of these issues of consistency and comparability have been investigated throughout the decades of the CPR survey. The primary aim of this study is to draw together the results of those investigations, updating or integrating them where applicable. A secondary aim is to use the CPR database to address other previously unexamined issues. We show that the increase in speed of tow has had no effect on the depth of sampling and the mechanical efficiency of the internal mechanism, but that at the highest tow speeds there is some evidence that flow may be reduced. Depth of tow may also be dependent on the ship operating a particular route. We describe the processing procedures used to ensure consistency of analysis and detail the changes in taxonomic resolution that have occurred through the course of the survey. Some consistency issues remain unresolved, such as the effects of adding heavy instrumentation to the attitude of the CPR in the water and possible effects on sampling performance. The reduction of flow caused by clogging of the filtering mesh has now been quantified through the addition of flowmeters and each CPR sample can now be calibrated for measured, or derived, filtered volume. Although estimates of abundances for large areas have been shown to be unaffected by recalibration, absolute quantification of plankton abundance is necessary to enable comparisons with other sampling devices. Several studies have now been undertaken that compare plankton abundances obtained with the CPR with those obtained using vertical nets at specific locations on the European continental shelf. Although catches by the CPR are almost always lower, seasonal cycles are replicated in each comparison, and interannual variability generally agrees between time series. The relative catch rates for an individual species by each device appear to be consistent, probably because of the organisms’ behaviour and attributes of the sampling device. We are now able to develop calibration factors to convert CPR catches to absolute abundances that can be integrated with other data sets where appropriate, which should increase the applicability and utility of CPR data.