Earthquakes in Switzerland and surrounding regions during 2009

This report of the Swiss Seismological Service summarizes the seismic activity in Switzerland and surrounding regions during 2009. During this period, 450 earthquakes and 68 quarry blasts were detected and located in the region under consideration. The three strongest events occurred about 15 km NW of Basel in southern Germany (M_L 4.2), near Wildhaus in the Toggenburg (M_L 4.0) and near Bivio in Graubünden (M_L 3.5). Although felt by the population, they were not reported to have caused any damage. With a total of 24 events with M_L ≥ 2.5, the seismic activity in the year 2009 was close to the average over the previous 34 years.     

Fossilization and degradation of intact polar lipids in deep subsurface sediments: A theoretical approach

Intact polar membrane lipids (IPLs) are frequently used as markers for living microbial cells in sedimentary environments. The assumption with these studies is that IPLs are rapidly degraded upon cell lysis and therefore IPLs present in sediments are derived from in situ microbial production. We used a theoretical approach to assess whether IPLs in surface sediments can potentially represent fossilized IPLs derived from the upper part of the water column and whether IPLs can be preserved during sediment burial. Previous studies which examined the degradation kinetics of IPLs show that phospholipids, i.e. ester-linked lipids with a phosphor-containing head group, degrade more rapidly than glycosidic ether lipids, i.e. ether-linked lipids with a glycosidically bound sugar moiety. Based on these studies, we calculate that only a minor fraction of phospholipids but a major fraction of glycosidic ether lipids biosynthesized in the upper part of the water column can potentially reach deep-sea surface sediments. Using a simple model and power law kinetic degradation parameters reported in the literature, we also evaluated the degradation of IPLs during sediment burial. Our model predicts a log-log relationship between IPL concentrations and depth, consistent with what has been observed in studies of IPLs in subsurface sediments. Although our results do not exclude production of IPLs in subsurface sediment, they do suggest that IPLs present in the deep biosphere may contain a substantial fossil component potentially masking in situ IPL production.     

Structuring problems in sustainability science: The multi-level DPSIR framework

Sustainability science needs approaches that allow for the integration of knowledge across disciplines and scales. This paper suggests an approach to conceptualize problems of unsustainability by embedding the Drivers-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) scheme within a multi-level institutional framework represented by Hägerstrand’s system of nested domains. The proposed taxonomy helps to decipher and to better understand key casual chains and societal responses at the appropriate spatial levels for particular sustainability problem areas. To illustrate the scheme more concretely the example of recent problem-solving efforts for Baltic Sea eutrophication driven by Swedish agriculture is examined. The discussion focuses on how the scheme fulfills the four research strategy requirements within the field of sustainability science and how the scheme is distinct from alternative approaches.     

A record of ductile syn-intrusional fabrics to post solidification cataclasis: Magnetic fabric analysis of neoproterozoic Mirpur and Mt. Abu Granitoids,NW India

The Mirpur granite body represents a relatively small (10 km²) pluton intruded along the northern margin of the adjacent Mt. Abu batholith (∼125 km²) in NW India. It is a visibly undeformed alkali feldspar rich pink granite; in contrast, the Mt. Abu is a composite granitoid body and variably deformed. Both are intruded by rhyolitic dykes and the terminal magmatic events in both the cases are mafic dykes. The AMS (Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility) data identify the Mt. Abu with SE-dipping foliations and subvertical lineations as a single structural domain while the Mirpur granite body shows two domains characterized by predominantly E — W trend of magnetic foliation in the eastern part (domain I) and N — S orientations in the western part (domain II). The domain I shows magmatic fabrics, typical for the peraluminous granites of Malani Igneous Suite (MIS). Change in fabric orientation in the domain II has resulted from cataclasis wherein the samples show destruction of the original E — W fabric and complete transposition by N — S trends. The foliations in the Mt. Abu granites have been related to SE orientation of maximum horizontal stress. The same maximum stress direction can be inferred from dyke orientation in the Mirpur granite, which is interpreted as continuation of the tectonic imprint in this region during emplacement of both the granites. Age of the cataclastic overprint with a predominant N — S orientation is not yet constrained but corresponds with the trend of the nearby Sindreth basin within the Malani Igneous Suite. The Neoproterozoic tectonic scenario for the region has been interpreted in terms of an ongoing crustal convergence and granitic magma emplacement against the back stop offered by the rigid Delhi Fold Belt.     

Possible experimental verification of Bellert’s cosmological red shift law using the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

The author presents a loose proposal of an experiment of measurements of the spectrum of the local black body thermal radiation of the quantum vacuum. The experiment may verify the Bellert’s and other theories about the nature of the cosmological red shift of electromagnetic waves and give a new interpretation of measurements of Cosmic Blackbody Radiation delivered by the satellite missions COBE and WMAP. Differently to the Big Bang theory, it is assumed that the quantum vacuum continuously generates thermal noise with the spectrum given by Planck’s law.     

Propagation of impact‐induced shock waves in porous sandstone using mesoscale modeling

Generation and propagation of shock waves by meteorite impact is significantly affected by material properties such as porosity, water content, and strength. The objective of this work was to quantify processes related to the shock‐induced compaction of pore space by numerical modeling, and compare the results with data obtained in the framework of the Multidisciplinary Experimental and Modeling Impact Research Network (MEMIN) impact experiments. We use mesoscale models resolving the collapse of individual pores to validate macroscopic (homogenized) approaches describing the bulk behavior of porous and water‐saturated materials in large‐scale models of crater formation, and to quantify localized shock amplification as a result of pore space crushing. We carried out a suite of numerical models of planar shock wave propagation through a well‐defined area (the “sample”) of porous and/or water‐saturated material. The porous sample is either represented by a homogeneous unit where porosity is treated as a state variable (macroscale model) and water content by an equation of state for mixed material (ANEOS) or by a defined number of individually resolved pores (mesoscale model). We varied porosity and water content and measured thermodynamic parameters such as shock wave velocity and particle velocity on meso‐ and macroscales in separate simulations. The mesoscale models provide additional data on the heterogeneous distribution of peak shock pressures as a consequence of the complex superposition of reflecting rarefaction waves and shock waves originating from the crushing of pores. We quantify the bulk effect of porosity, the reduction in shock pressure, in terms of Hugoniot data as a function of porosity, water content, and strength of a quartzite matrix. We find a good agreement between meso‐, macroscale models and Hugoniot data from shock experiments. We also propose a combination of a porosity compaction model (ε–α model) that was previously only used for porous materials and the ANEOS for water‐saturated quartzite (all pore space is filled with water) to describe the behavior of partially water‐saturated material during shock compression. Localized amplification of shock pressures results from pore collapse and can reach as much as four times the average shock pressure in the porous sample. This may explain the often observed localized high shock pressure phases next to more or less unshocked grains in impactites and meteorites.     

Trends in temperature and rainfall extremes in the Yellow River source region, China

Spatial and temporal changes in daily temperature and rainfall indices are analyzed for the source region of Yellow River. Three periods are examined: 1960–1990, 1960–2000 and 1960–2006. Significant warming trends have been observed for the whole study region over all the three periods, particularly over the period 1960–2006. This warming is mainly attributed to a significant increase in the minimum temperature, and characterized by pronounced changes in the low temperature events composing a significant increase in the magnitude and a significant decrease in the frequency. In contrast to the temperature indices, no significant changes have been observed in the rainfall indices at the majority of stations. However, the rainfall shows noticeable increasing trends during winter and spring from a basin-wide point of view. Conversely, the frequency and contribution of moderately heavy rainfall events to total rainfall show a significant decreasing trend in summer. To conclude, this study shows that over the past 40–45 years the source region of the Yellow River has become warmer and experienced some seasonally varying changes in rainfall, which also supports an emerging global picture of warming and the prevailing positive trends in winter rainfall extremes over the mid-latitudinal land areas of the Northern Hemisphere.     

Heat and moisture budgets from airborne measurements and high-resolution model simulations

High-resolution simulations with a mesoscale model are performed to estimate heat and moisture budgets of a well-mixed boundary layer. The model budgets are validated against energy budgets obtained from airborne measurements over heterogeneous terrain in Western Germany. Time rate of change, vertical divergence, and horizontal advection for an atmospheric column of air are estimated. Results show that the time trend of specific humidity exhibits some deficiencies, while the potential temperature trend is matched accurately. Furthermore, the simulated turbulent surface fluxes of sensible and latent heat are comparable to the measured fluxes, leading to similar values of the vertical divergence. The analysis of different horizontal model resolutions exhibits improved surface fluxes with increased resolution, a fact attributed to a reduced aggregation effect. Scale-interaction effects could be identified: while time trends and advection are strongly influenced by mesoscale forcing, the turbulent surface fluxes are mainly controlled by microscale processes.     

A reconstructed dynamic Indian monsoon index extended back to 1880

The authors present a reconstruction of summer (June–July–August) mean dynamic Indian monsoon index (DIMI) back to 1880 based on a large number of historical surface observation data as well as information from the upper air data. The reconstruction shows a satisfying skill in terms of both the value of reduction of error and an evaluation against other independent monsoon indices. The skill of reconstruction increases over time with more predictor data (in particular upper-level data) becoming available. A comparison with the observed all Indian summer monsoon rainfall index (AIRI) shows a high consistence in both inter-decadal and inter-annual variability. The reconstruction shows stronger than normal monsoon during the 1880s, 1915–1925 (around 1920) and 1930–1945 (around 1940) as the AIRI. The El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)—monsoon relationship is reasonably captured in the reconstruction. Powers concentrating within quasi-biennial band stand out in the reconstruction as well as in the AIRI. A comparison of the reconstruction against an atmospheric general circulation model simulation with specified SST and external forcing agents spanning 1901–1999 indicates a slightly higher reproducibility of monsoon circulation than monsoon rainfall in terms of interannual variability. The relationship between the Asian continent warming and the ENSO–monsoon connection is also discussed by using the new dynamic index.     

Estimation of Biomass Heat Storage Using Thermal Infrared Imagery: Application to a Walnut Orchard

A new method to estimate tree biomass heat storage from thermal infrared (TIR) imaging of biomass surface temperature is presented. TIR images of the canopy are classified into trunk, branches, and leaves. The one-dimensional heat equation in cylindrical coordinates is forced with trunk and branch surface temperatures to simulate the temperature distribution and heat storage in tree trunks and branches. Assuming uniform leaf temperatures, heat storage in leaves is computed from the surface temperature of the leaves separately for the sunlit upper and shaded lower canopy. The sum of trunk, branches, leaf, and air heat storage gives the canopy heat storage. Measurements in a walnut orchard near Davis, California, in early June 2007 showed that biomass heat storage was of the same order as air heat storage and about 1% of daytime and 9% of nighttime net radiation.