Short timescale variability of the mesospheric sodium layer

In this article we investigate the short-term characteristics of the sodium layer and their implications for laser guide star systems. We report measurements of sodium density andcentroid-height variations on timescales of 100 ms upwards. Significant centroid-height variations on short timescales may necessitate frequent refocussing of the beam and wavefront sensor system.We present results from observations of the mesospheric sodium layer taken at the Max Planck observatory in Calar Alto, Spain in September 1997 and August 1998. We describe our experiment which uses the resonant optical backscatter of 589.2 nm laser light from the upper atmosphere as a measure of sodium abundance.Short-term variations are dominated by the formation of dense sporadic layers in the normal sodium layer. Measurements were made on 3 nights in 1997 and on 2 nights in 1998. Somewhat unexpectedly for a mid-latitude site, sporadic sodium layers were seen on 4 of these 5 nights. One of the sporadic layers was observed for its duration. The 2 km wide layer reached a maximum intensity of approximately two and a half times that of the background layer and could be distinguished from the background for over five hours. Centroid height variations of up to 400 m were observed on timescales of 1–2 min. In 1998 we were sensitive to variations of 5% or more in total sodium abundance on timescales of 100 ms upwards. We found no evidencefor variations of this level on these short timescales.     

Geomorphologic and Palaeoenvironmental Development of Holocene Perched Coastal Dune Systems in Brittany, France

Two perched dune systems are investigated in the Baie d'Audierne (Finistère, Brittany, northwest France). A maximum age of 4545–4160 cal. yr bp for the onset of sand accretion is provided through radiocarbon (¹⁴C) analysis of an organic-rich basal palaeosol, corresponding closely to deceleration, but before stabilisation, of regional Holocene relative sea levels (RSLs). Molluscan analysis through the dune sand indicates an initial bare sand or sparsely vegetated surface, subsequently maturing and colonised by scrub vegetation, and finally returning to more open dune grassland conditions. These data suggest a three-stage Perched Dune Development Model (PDDM), which may be applicable to perched dunes on at least a regional scale: (1) initial sand sheet inundation as RSL rises; (2) stabilisation of RSL allowing dune to mature; and (3) sea-level stabilisation stimulates cliff formation, perching and progressive landward retreat of the dune shore. This study recognises that perched dunes hold greater potential for establishing chronologies for regional Holocene dune development than the more widely studied lowland dune systems, where evidence for early sand inundation may be obscured or lost by modest rises in sea level.     

Mineral inclusions and geochemical characteristics of microdiamonds from the DO27, A154, A21, A418, DO18, DD17 and Ranch Lake kimberlites at Lac de Gras, Slave Craton, Canada

A mineral inclusion, carbon isotope, nitrogen content, nitrogen aggregation state and morphological study of 576 microdiamonds from the DO27, A154, A21, A418, DO18, DD17 and Ranch Lake kimberlites at Lac de Gras, Slave Craton, was conducted. Mineral inclusion data show the diamonds are largely eclogitic (64%), followed by peridotitic (25%) and ultradeep (11%). The paragenetic abundances are similar to macrodiamonds from the DO27 kimberlite (Davies, R.M., Griffin, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., 1999. Diamonds from the deep: pipe DO27, Slave craton, Canada. In: Gurney, J.J., Gurney, J.L., Pascoe, M.D., Richardson, S.H. (Eds.), The J. B. Dawson Vol., Proc. 7th Internat. Kimberlite Conf., Red Roof Designs, Cape Town, pp. 148–155) but differ to diamonds from nearby kimberlites at Ekati (e.g., Lithos (2004); Tappert, R., Stachel, T., Harris, J.W., Brey, G.P., 2004. Mineral Inclusions in Diamonds from the Panda Kimberlite, S. P., Canada. 8th International Kimberlite Conference, extended abstracts) and Snap Lake to the south (Dokl. Earth Sci. 380 (7) (2001) 806), that are dominated by peridotitic stones.

Eclogitic diamonds with variable inclusion compositions and temperatures of formation (1040–1300 °C) crystallised at variable lithospheric depths sometimes in changing chemical environments. A large range to very ¹³C-depleted C-isotope compositions (δ¹³C=−35.8‰ to −2.2‰) and an NMORB bulk composition, calculated from trace elements in garnet and clinopyroxene inclusions, are consistent with an origin from subducted oceanic crust and sediments. Carbon isotopes in the peridotitic diamonds have mantle compositions (δ¹³C mode −4.0‰). Mineral inclusion compositions are largely harzburgitic. Variable temperatures of formation (garnet T_Ni=800–1300 °C) suggest the peridotitic diamonds originate from the shallow ultra-depleted and deeper less depleted layers of the central Slave lithosphere. Carbon isotopes (δ¹³C av.=−5.1‰) and mineral inclusions in the ultradeep diamonds suggest they formed in peridotitic mantle (670 km). The diamonds may have been entrained in a plume and subcreted to the base of the central Slave lithosphere.

Poorly aggregated nitrogen (IaA without platelets) in a large number of eclogitic (67%) and peridotitic (32%) diamonds, with similar nitrogen contents, indicates the diamonds were stored in the mantle at low temperatures (1060–<1100 °C) following crystallisation in the Archean. Type IaA diamonds have largely cubo-octahedral growth forms, and Type II and Type IaAB diamonds, with higher nitrogen aggregation states, mostly have octahedral morphologies. However, no correlation between these groups and their mineral inclusion compositions, C-isotopes, and N-contents rules out the possibility of unique source origins and suggests eclogitic and peridotitic diamonds experienced variable mantle thermal states. Variation in mineral inclusion chemistries in single diamonds, possible overgrowths of ¹³C-depleted eclogitic diamond on diamonds with peridotitic and ultradeep inclusions, and Type I ultradeep diamond with low N-aggregation is consistent with diamond growth over time in changing chemical environments.     

Inclusions in diamonds from the K14 and K10 kimberlites, Buffalo Hills, Alberta, Canada: diamond growth in a plume?

Analyses of mineral inclusions, carbon isotopes, nitrogen contents and nitrogen aggregation states in 29 diamonds from two Buffalo Hills kimberlites in northern Alberta, Canada were conducted. From 25 inclusion bearing diamonds, the following paragenetic abundances were found: peridotitic (48%), eclogitic (32%), eclogitic/websteritic (8%), websteritic (4%), ultradeep? (4%) and unknown (4%). Diamonds containing mineral inclusions of ferropericlase, and mixed eclogitic-asthenospheric-websteritic and eclogitic-websteritic mineral associations suggests the possibility of diamond growth over a range of depths and in a variety of mantle environments (lithosphere, asthenosphere and possibly lower mantle).

Eclogitic diamonds have a broad range of C-isotopic composition (δ¹³C=−21‰ to −5‰). Peridotitic, websteritic and ultradeep diamonds have typical mantle C-isotope values (δ¹³C=−4.9‰ av.), except for two ¹³C-depleted peridotitic (δ¹³C=−11.8‰, −14.6‰) and one ¹³C-depleted websteritic diamond (δ¹³C=−11.9‰). Infrared spectra from 29 diamonds identified two diamond groups: 75% are nitrogen-free (Type II) or have fully aggregated nitrogen defects (Type IaB) with platelet degradation and low to moderate nitrogen contents (av. 330 ppm-N); 25% have lower nitrogen aggregation states and higher nitrogen contents (30% IaB; <1600 ppm-N).

The combined evidence suggests two generations of diamond growth. Type II and Type IaB diamonds with ultradeep, peridotitic, eclogitic and websteritic inclusions crystallised from eclogitic and peridotitic rocks while moving in a dynamic environment from the asthenosphere and possibly the lower mantle to the base of the lithosphere. Mechanisms for diamond movement through the mantle could be by mantle convection, or an ascending plume. The interaction of partial melts with eclogitic and peridotitic lithologies may have produced the intermediate websteritic inclusion compositions, and can explain diamonds of mixed parageneses, and the overlap in C-isotope values between parageneses. Strong deformation and extremely high nitrogen aggregation states in some diamonds may indicate high mantle storage temperatures and strain in the diamond growth environment. A second diamond group, with Type IaA–IaB nitrogen aggregation and peridotitic inclusions, crystallised at the base of the cratonic lithosphere. All diamonds were subsequently sampled by kimberlites and transported to the Earth's surface.     

Constraints on the timing of granite emplacement, deformation and metamorphism in the Shamva area, Zimbabwe

In order to constrain the temporal relationship between granite (sensu lato) emplacement and metamorphism, isotope work was carried out on the minerals zircon and apatite (U-Pb), garnet (Pb-Pb) and hornblende (Ar-Ar) from wall rock samples in the Shamva area in Zimbabwe. The area, encompassing parts of the Chinamora and Murehwa batholiths and a wedge-shaped greenstone belt segment in between, is commonly quoted in the literature as an example illustrating pluton emplacement processes and deformational models for the Archean. New U-Pb dating of apatite from a boudinaged pegmatite within mafic schists in the batholith-greenstone contact zone has yielded an age of 2619 +28/-24 Ma. This age is interpreted as the best estimation of the intrusion age of this unit, depending on the assumed closure temperature, and provides an upper age limit for the syntectonic emplacement of the now gneissic granites. Pb-Pb dating of late kinematic garnets in cordierite-bearing rocks within the greenstone belt wall rocks gives an age of 2623NJ Ma. Together, this timing of relatively late, syntectonic plutonism and metamorphic mineral growth at ca. 2.62 Ga compares well with existing zircon crystallization ages for felsic volcanics (2645dž Ma, 2643NJ Ma) and post-tectonic porphyritic monzogranites (2601ᆢ Ma). Ar-Ar hornblende ages for mafic schists from different areas within the greenstone belt wall rocks range between 2621 and 2498 Ma and have been interpreted to indicate mixing between metamorphic ages and cooling ages. The data support a geological model whereby volcanism and sedimentation are associated with an early phase of regional deformation at ca. 2.64 Ga, which may have started earlier and lasted longer, and evolves into the voluminous emplacement of granites (now gneissic granites) in the batholiths at approximately 2.62 Ga. Emplacement of post-tectonic tabular monzogranites takes place at ca. 2.60 Ga.     

Estimating the surface wind speed over drifting pack ice from surface weather charts

Routine surface wind speed data, vital for the study of drifting pack ice, are not available for the polar oceans. Over sea, it has been demonstrated by Hasse that estimates of surface wind speed may be obtained from the geostrophic wind speed using linear formulae. Comparing estimated with observed data for six sites in Canada, it is found that the formulae may also be applied to obtain estimates of surface wind speed over pack ice.     

On fitting the log-linear model to wind speed and temperature profiles over a melting glacier

The profile structure of wind speed and temperature in katabatic flow over a melting glacier is analyzed within the log-linear framework. Similarity between windspeed and temperature profiles is indicated but the log-linear model should be restricted to heights within 1.5 m of the ice. Marked deviation from the model occur at greater heights, probably due to the effects of flux divergence.Unlike results from other stable atmospheres, a decreases with increasing stability. This may arise from the use of the Obukhov length L. When the height H at which the wind speed reaches its maximum value is used instead, does not vary with stability. It has mean values of 4.5 and 4.3 for windspeed and temperature profiles, respectively.     

Ecometrics and the paleoecological implications of Pleistocene faunas from the western coastal plains of the Cape Floristic Region,South Africa

The Pleistocene ungulate communities from the western coastal plains of South Africa's Cape Floristic Region (CFR) are diverse and dominated by grazers, in contrast to the region's Holocene and historical faunas, which are relatively species-poor and dominated by small-bodied browsers and mixed feeders. An expansion of grassy habitats is clearly implied by the Pleistocene faunas, but the presence of ruminant grazers that cannot survive the summer dry season typical of the region today suggests other important paleoecological changes. Here we use dental ecometrics to explore the paleoecological implications of the region's Pleistocene faunas. We show that the dental traits (hypsodonty and occlusal topography) of the ungulates that occurred historically in the CFR track annual and summer aridity, and we use these relationships to reconstruct past aridity. Our results indicate that the Pleistocene faunas signal paleoenvironments that were on average less arid than today, including during the summer, consistent with other lines of evidence that suggest a higher water table and expansion of well-watered habitats. Greater water availability can be explained by lower temperature and reduced evapotranspiration during cooler phases of the Pleistocene, probably coupled with enhanced groundwater recharge due to increased winter precipitation.     

The detection of fast-moving asteroids and comets by IRAS

The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) was used to search for fast-moving objects in the inner Solar System. The selection effects and limitations of the search are examined with particular reference to the objects which may be present in the moving-object data base at JPL. It is shown that the two new Apollo asteroid discoveries are in fair agreement with the discovery rate by ground-based telescopes. IRAS discovered six comets which is also consistent with the discovery rate for ground-based searches. It is estimated that there are 20–30 comets but no Apollo asteroids in the hours-confirmed moving-object data base established by the IRAS project.