We investigate a scenario of photon scattering by electrons within a relativistic outflow. The outflow is composed of discrete shells with different speeds. One shell emits radiation for a short duration. Some of this radiation is scattered by the shell(s) behind. We calculate in a simple two-shell model the observed scattered flux density as a function of the observed primary flux density, the normalized arrival time delay between the two emission components, the Lorentz factor ratio of the two shells and the scattering shell's optical depth. Thomson scattering in a cold shell and inverse Compton scattering in a hot shell are both considered. The results of our calculations are applied to the gamma-ray bursts and the afterglows. We find that the scattered flux from a cold slower shell is small and likely to be detected only for those bursts with very weak afterglows. A hot scattering shell could give rise to a scattered emission as bright as the X-ray shallow decay component detected in many bursts, on a condition that the isotropically equivalent total energy carried by the hot electrons is large, ∼1052–1056 erg. The scattered emission from a faster shell could appear as a late short γ-ray/MeV flash or become part of the prompt emission depending on the delay of the ejection of the shell. 相似文献
Maximum and minimum void ratios (emax and emin) of granular soils are commonly used as indicators of many engineering properties. However, few methods, apart from laboratory tests, are available to provide a rapid estimation of both emax and emin. In this study, we present a theoretical model to map the densest and the loosest packing configurations of granular soils onto the void space. A corresponding numerical procedure that can predict both emax and emin of granular soils with arbitrary grain size distributions is proposed. The capacity of the proposed method is evaluated by predicting the maximum and minimum void ratios of medium to fine mixed graded sands with different contents of fines. The influence of the grain size distribution, characterized quantitatively by uniformity parameter and the fractal dimension, on emax and emin is discussed using the proposed method. Moreover, application of this method in understanding the controlling mechanism for the void ratio change during grain crushing is presented.
Storm surges pose significant danger and havoc to the coastal residents' safety, property, and lives, particularly at offshore locations with shallow water levels. Predictions of storm surges with hours of warning time are important for evacuation measures in low-lying regions and coastal management plans. In addition to experienced predictions and numerical models, artificial intelligence (AI) techniques are also being used widely for short-term storm surge prediction owing to their merits in good level of prediction accuracy and rapid computations. Convolutional neural network (CNN) and long short-term memory (LSTM) are two of the most important models among AI techniques. However, they have been scarcely utilised for surge level (SL) forecasting, and combinations of the two models are even rarer. This study applied CNN and LSTM both individually and in combination towards multi-step ahead short-term storm surge level prediction using observed SL and wind information. The architectures of the CNN, LSTM, and two sequential techniques of combining the models (LSTM–CNN and CNN–LSTM) were constructed via a trial-and-error approach and knowledge obtained from previous studies. As a case study, 11 a of hourly observed SL and wind data of the Xiuying Station, Hainan Province, China, were organised as inputs for training to verify the feasibility and superiority of the proposed models. The results show that CNN and LSTM had evident advantages over support vector regression (SVR) and multilayer perceptron (MLP), and the combined models outperformed the individual models (CNN and LSTM), mostly by 4%–6%. However, on comparing the model computed predictions during two severe typhoons that resulted in extreme storm surges, the accuracy was found to improve by over 10% at all forecasting steps. 相似文献
Near-inertial motions contribute most of the velocity shear in the upper ocean. In the Bay of Bengal (BoB), the annual-mean energy flux from the wind to near-inertial motions in the mixed layer in 2013 is dominated by tropical cyclone (TC) processes. However, due to the lack of long-term observations of velocity profiles, our knowledge about interior near-inertial waves (NIWs) as well as their shear features is limited. In this study, we quantified the contribution of NIWs to shear by integrating the wavenumber-frequency spectra estimated from velocity profiles in the upper layers (40?440 m) of the southern BoB from April 2013 to May 2014. It is shown that the annual-mean proportion of near-inertial shear out of the total is approximately 50%, and the high contribution is mainly due to the enhancement of the TC processes during which the near-inertial shear accounts for nearly 80% of the total. In the steady monsoon seasons, the near-inertial shear is dominant to or at least comparable with the subinertial shear. The contribution of NIWs to the total shear is lower during the summer monsoon than during the winter monsoon owing to more active mesoscale eddies and higher subinertial shear during the summer monsoon. The Doppler shifting of the M2 internal tide has little effect on the main results since the proportion of shear from the tidal motions is much lower than that from the near-inertial and subinertial motions. 相似文献
ABSTRACT This paper discusses characteristics of the seasonal variation in phthalate acid esters (PAEs) in the PM2.5 in the city of Changji, which is located an arid area of Xinjiang Province, northwest China. Samples were collected using a Laoying 2030 median discharge intelligent total suspended particulate (TSP) sampler and analyzed by a Shimadzu GC-2010 gas chromatograph. The results showed that PAEs in PM2.5 were mainly composed of phthalic acid dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and phthalic acid (2-)ethyl hexyl ester (DEHP). DBP and DEHP are the most commonly used plasticizers, accounting for the majority of plasticizers used, and have large environmental emissions. Compared with the proportions of TSPs, proportions of DBP and DEHP in the PM2.5 were lower, while the proportions of DMP and DEP were higher. A correlation exists between the distribution of PAEs and the particle size and concentration of atmospheric particulates. Seasonal variations in DBP and DEHP were the same, with lowest concentrations in the summer. Although seasonal variation in DMP was not the same as those of DBP and DEHP, the general trend was similar. Seasonal variation in DEP was different from those of other PAEs. This pattern is related to PAE characteristics and seasonal variations in their sources. 相似文献
Metamorphic garnet commonly contains needle‐like rutile inclusions as well as equant rutile inclusions that surround quartz inclusions and range in size from submicrometer to nanometer. Although the origin of these equant rutile inclusions, that is, exsolution or non‐exsolution, has important implications for petrological and tectonic processes, the crystallographic characteristics of these inclusions have rarely been studied because of the small sizes and analytical difficulties involved. Here, we report the crystallographic characteristics pertinent to the genetic origin of minute equant rutile inclusions in cloudy, nearly spherically shaped garnet domains with Ti‐depleted compositions surrounding quartz inclusions in ultrahigh‐pressure garnet from several diamondiferous Erzgebirge quartzofeldspathic gneissic rock samples. TEM analyses show that the equant rutile crystals in cloudy garnet domains are partially bounded by the low‐energy {100}rt ± {110}rt ± {101}rt facets and have rather random crystallographic orientation relationships (CORs) with the garnet host, with preferential alignment of low‐energy lattice planes, for example, {100}rt//{112}grt, for some rutile crystals. Although the rather random CORs are unlikely to be attributed to solid‐state exsolution subjected to the stringent topotactic garnet lattice constraints, the characteristic subhedral {100}rt ± {110}rt ± {101}rt crystal forms of rutile can be rationalized by a metasomatic dissolution‐reprecipitation mechanism via a fluid phase. In this scenario, the quartz+fluid inclusions in garnet were first subjected to decompression microcracking during rock exhumation, followed by dissolution of Ti‐bearing garnet matrix at the crack tips or along the crack surfaces and subsequent reprecipitation of rutile, apatite, gahnite, akdalaite, and Ti‐depleted garnet. The rapid coalescence between rutile and garnet crystals in fluid or direct attachment of rutile crystals onto the dissolving crack surfaces would then yield the rather random CORs as reported here. These results, along with previous work on rutile needles, indicate rather diverse genesis of rutile inclusions in various crystal forms, thus shedding light on the controversial exsolution origin for other inclusion suite/microstructure in minerals. 相似文献