Soil contamination from urban and industrial activity: example of the mining district of Linares (southern Spain)

The Linares region (southern Spain) has been subjected to two important sources of pollution: the intensive mining works and the urban-industrial activity. To obtain a geochemical characterisation of the soil, 31 trace elements were analysed and 669 soil samples were collected. By means of clustering analysis, we identified groups of elements and grid squares in which relations could be established concerning soil lithology, urban and industrial activities and the degree of pollution impact; in addition, we were able to characterise the geochemical background of the study area. The multivariate study led us to identify four factors. Particularly important was factor 2, which represented the elements associated with mineral paragenesis (Cu, Pb, As, Co, Mn, Zn, Sn, Ba). This factor also contains elements related with an urban-industrial activity, such as Pb, Cu, Zn, As and Ba. Furthermore, we identified factor 4, associating Ni, V and Cr, and which is related to the use of fuels.     

Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Earthquake Behaviour Coding Methodology: analysis of Christchurch Public Hospital video data from the 22 February Christchurch earthquake event

Earthquake epidemiological research indicates that the behavioural response influences the nature and severity of injuries sustained. However, there is no observational evidence of the actions individuals engage in during and immediately following earthquake shaking, and the context in which earthquake injuries and deaths are caused. Closed Circuit Television Earthquake Behaviour Coding Methodology has been developed as a tool to classify human behaviour during and immediately following earthquake shaking using real event video data. The coding methodology was applied to security video data captured during the 22 February 2011 M_w6.3 ‘Christchurch’ earthquake event from the Christchurch Public Hospital which experienced shaking intensity of MM9 lasting approximately 12–15 s. We applied this coding methodology to determine: demography, trans-event behavioural responses, post-event behavioural responses, influence of social context on behaviour, and influence of behaviour on injuries. A total of 213 individuals from 31 different camera views were analysed. Sixty-six per cent of the individuals were adult-aged females. The primary trans-event responses were to hold (26%) onto furniture, walls, and/or other people close to them and to look around (30%). No individuals were observed to perform all ‘Drop, Cover, Hold’ actions, the recommended action during strong earthquake shaking in New Zealand. Post-event behaviour included: running, walking, providing assistance, moving towards others, visual communication, and some individuals gave instructions. Social contextual behaviour varied depending on the role of the adult. There were no serious injuries linked to behaviour. The results of this initial study indicate the coding methodology can record the distribution of and variation in human behaviours. Therefore, objective observation of earthquake video data can provide a useful quantitative measure of human behaviour. Significantly, the process will enable researchers to look more closely at behaviours, as well as the social and physical contexts associated with injury risk during and immediately following earthquake shaking.     

Ecological function regionalization of cultural heritage sites in Turpan,China, based on GIS

The protection for historical and cultural heritage and their surrounding environments is much more important than any other preventive efforts made by humans, so how to protect them and achieve sustainable utilization should be a priority. Regionalization is an efficient and a sustainable tool to manage the protected areas. In this study, based on regionalization of natural protected areas theory, we used ecological sensitivity analysis to regionalize the heritage sites in Turpan, China. Factors for the analysis are topography, ecological environments, human activity, and landscape resources. Based on the analysis of environmental status and spatial variation of ecological sensitivity in Turpan, this paper aims at developing a regionalization scheme and provides a scientific basis for protection and restoration of vulnerable historical and cultural sites. Our study results showed that 75% of the heritage sites in Turpan have sensitivity which is under dangerous condition and requires better planning and protection. This study provided a reliable and scientific way to regionalize heritage sites in the study area and which also can be transferred to other locations with similar situation.     

Types and nature of fracture associated with Late Ordovician paleochannels of glaciofluvial Sarah Formation,Qasim region,Central Saudi Arabia

This study evaluates the Late Ordovician glaciofluvial deposits of the Sarah Formation and equivalent outcroppings in north, central, and southwestern Saudi Arabia. The Sarah Formation also covers a wide area in the subsurface and is considered as an important target for unconventional tight gas reservoir. Defining the fracture types, nature, and distribution in outcrop scale might help to establish a successful fracture simulation model and behavior for the Sarah tight gas reservoir in the subsurface. This study investigates fracture characteristics for the Sarah Formation at Sarah paleochannel outcrops. The study revealed three sets of fractures, which have EW, NS, and SE-NW directions, and these fractures vary from open, resistive, and filled to resistive fractures. The closed fractures are filled with ferruginated iron oxides and gypsum. The filled fractures (the thrust boundary) are found in the study area at the SE-NW strike fracture set, while open and resistive fractures are found mainly at S-N and E-W fracture sets, respectively. The syn-depositional filled fractures (iron oxides) are considered as the younger fracture sets while the open and resistive fractures are post-depositional fractures which may have resulted from uplift or tectonic movement. A general model representing the fracture pattern and the thrusting boundaries due to glacial movement was constructed. It has been noticed that the systematic occurrence of filled fractures (thrust boundaries) described the boundaries between different glacial events, which act as a fluid barrier (filled fractures) and decrease the reservoir quality. The finding of this study might be utilized as a guide and lead for exploration in the subsurface Sarah glacial deposits. It will also help to understand and speculate the nature pattern and distribution of fractures with the Sarah Formation.     

Modeling of source parameters of the 15 December 2015 Deogarh earthquake of M<Subscript>w</Subscript> 4.0

We herein present source parameters and focal mechanism of a rare cratonic upper crustal earthquake of M_w4.0, which occurred at 8 km depth (centroid depth) below a region near Deogarh, Jharkhand. For our study, we used broadband waveform data from a seismic network of 15 three-component seismographs in the eastern Indian craton. The average seismic moment, moment magnitude and source radius are estimated to be 1.1 × 10¹⁵ N-m, 4.0 and 180.6 m, respectively. The high average stress drop of 14.27 MPa could be attributed to its lower-crustal origin. The mean corner frequency is calculated to be 4.1 Hz. To study the source mechanism, we perform a deviatoric constrained full waveform moment tensor inversion of multiple point sources on the band-passed (0.06 – 0.14 Hz) broadband displacement data of the Deogarh event, using ISOLA software. The best fit is obtained for the source at 8 km centroid depth, with a moment magnitude 3.7, and a right-lateral strike-slip mechanism with strike 162°, dip 72° and rake 169°. The P-axis orients N24°E, which is parallel to the direction of the absolute plate motion direction of Indian plate, while T-axis orients E-W, which is parallel to the strike of the pre-existing Damodar Graben (DG) of Gondwana age. The occurrence of this earthquake is attributed to the neotectonic reactivation of a fault associated with the E-W trending DG shear zone.     

Experimental seismic shear force amplification in scaled RC cantilever shear walls with base irregularities

RC structural slender walls under large seismic excitation are expected to reach base moment capacity mainly affected by the first vibration mode. However, the base shear could be affected by higher modes once yielding in flexure has occurred, which might result in base shear underestimation in linear design. In this work, an experimental program is carried out on five RC rectangular walls 1:10 scaled. All five specimens considered irregularities at base, common in construction and one specimen did not consider shear reinforcement or boundary detailing. Tests are carried on a unidirectional shaking table and excitation is based on two Chile earthquake records with different intensities. Damage is concentrated at the wall base for all specimens; primary due to flexure with some participation of shear. For one of the records an average amplification of 1.3 is obtained, and a decrease in height of the resultant equivalent lateral force closes to 0.4 h_w. By increasing the intensity of the input record, amplification grows to an average of 1.7, while it decreases drastically when subjected to input records with low frequency content. No significant difference is observed in shear amplification in specimens with a base central opening, nor with setback, even though the cracking and failure mode was different for such specimens. Ductility demand shows no correlation when two different earthquakes are considered, whereas the frequency content and Arias intensity (I_a) of the input record directly affected the shear amplification.     

Heat Transport Processes in the Earth’s Crust

The heat of the Earth derives from internal and external sources. A heat balance shows that most of the heat provided by external sources is re-emitted by long-wavelength heat radiation and that the dominant internal sources are original heat and heat generated by decay of unstable radioactive isotopes. Understanding of the thermal regime of the Earth requires appreciation of properties and mechanisms for heat generation, storage, and transport. Both experimental and indirect methods are available for inferring the corresponding rock properties. Heat conduction is the dominant transport process in the Earth’s crust, except for settings where appreciable fluid flow provides a mechanism for heat advection. For most crustal and mantle rocks, heat radiation becomes significant only at temperatures above 1200°C.

∼3,850 Ma tonalites in the Nuuk region,Greenland: geochemistry and their reworking within an Eoarchaean gneiss complex

The Eoarchaean (>3,600 Ma) Itsaq Gneiss Complex of southern West Greenland is dominated by polyphase orthogneisses with a complex Archaean tectonothermal history. Some of the orthogneisses have c. 3,850 Ma zircons, and they vary from rare single phase metatonalites to more common complexly banded migmatites. This is due to heterogeneous strain, in situ anatexis and granitic veining superimposed during younger tectonothermal events. In the single-phase tonalites with c. 3,850 Ma zircon, oscillatory-zoned prismatic zircon is all 3,850 Ma old, but shows patchy ancient loss of radiogenic Pb. SHRIMP spot analyses and laser ablation ICP-MS depth profiling show that thin (usually < 10 μm) younger (3,660–3,590 Ma and Neoarchaean) shells of lower Th/U metamorphic zircon are present on these 3,850 Ma zircons. Several samples with this simple zircon population occur on islands near Akilia. In contrast, migmatites usually contain more complex zircon populations, with often more than one generation of igneous zircon present. Additional zircon dating of banded gneisses across the Complex shows that samples with c. 3,850 Ma igneous zircon are not just a phenomenon restricted to Akilia and adjacent islands. For example, migmatites from Itilleq (c. 65 km from Akilia) contain variable amounts of oscillatory-zoned 3,850 Ma and 3,650 Ma zircon, interpreted, respectively, as the rock age and the time of crustal melting under Eoarchaean metamorphism. With only 110–140 ppm Zr in the tonalites and likely magmatic temperatures of >850°C, zircon solubility–melt composition relationships show that they were only one-third saturated in zircon. Any zircon entrained in the precursor magmas would thus have been highly soluble. Combined with the cathodoluminesence imaging, this demonstrates that the c. 3,850 Ma oscillatory zoned zircon crystallised out of the melt and hence gives a magmatic age. Thus the rare well-preserved tonalites and palaeosome in migmatites testify that c. 3,850 Ma quartzo–feldspathic rocks are a widespread (but probably minor) component in the Itsaq Gneiss Complex. C. 3,850 Ma zircon with negative Eu anomalies (showing growth in felsic systems) also occurs as detrital grains in rare c. 3,800 Ma metaquartzites and as inherited grains in some 3,660 Ma granites (sensu stricto). These demonstrate that still more c. 3,850 Ma rocks were present, but were recycled into Eoarchaean sediments and crustally derived granites. The major and trace element characteristics (e.g. LREE enrichment, HREE depletion, low MgO) of the best-preserved c. 3,850 Ma rocks are typical of Archaean TTG suites, and thus argue for crust formation processes involving important contributions from melting of hydrated mafic crust to the earliest Archaean. Five c. 3,850 Ma tonalites were selected as the best preserved on the basis of field criteria and zircon petrology. Four of these samples have overlapping initial ɛ_Nd (3,850 Ma) values from +2.9 to +3.6± 0.5, with the fourth having a slightly lower value of +0.6. These data provide additional evidence for a markedly LREE-depleted early terrestrial mantle reservoir. The role of c. 3,850 Ma crust should be considered in interpreting isotope signatures of the younger (3,800–3,600 Ma) rocks of the Itsaq Gneiss Complex. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Citizens as sensors: the world of volunteered geography

In recent months there has been an explosion of interest in using the Web to create, assemble, and disseminate geographic information provided voluntarily by individuals. Sites such as Wikimapia and OpenStreetMap are empowering citizens to create a global patchwork of geographic information, while Google Earth and other virtual globes are encouraging volunteers to develop interesting applications using their own data. I review this phenomenon, and examine associated issues: what drives people to do this, how accurate are the results, will they threaten individual privacy, and how can they augment more conventional sources? I compare this new phenomenon to more traditional citizen science and the role of the amateur in geographic observation.     

A case study to verify methods for estimating transmissivity distributions along boreholes

Two methods, both using data from fixed-interval-length hydraulic tests and geological mapping on different scales, have been utilised to estimate transmissivity distributions of individual fractures. Individual fracture properties are of importance in estimating transport of water and solutes; they influence the spreading of grout when sealing tunnels. One of the methods is non-parametric, while the other is based on combinatorics and the multiplication principle. The study verified the usefulness of both methods for estimating the probability of conductive and non-conductive fractures, and the transmissivity distributions. Data for estimating transmissivity distributions originate from flow logging of a borehole in Sweden. Fracture frequency data are from core logging and images using a borehole image processing system (BIPS). Estimated transmissivity distributions, based on flow log data from 3-m sections (test scale length, L: 3 m, and step length, dL: 3 m), were compared with transmissivities obtained directly from detailed, overlapping flow logging which identify individual conductive fractures (test scale, L: 0.5 m, step length, dL: 0.1 m). The latter data are considered to be an acceptable approximation of the individual fracture transmissivities; the agreement, compared with the calculated transmissivity distributions based on 3-m section data, is good for both methods.

---

Resumen Se han utilizado dos métodos, ambos procesando datos de pruebas hidráulicas de longitud e intervalo fijo y mapas geológicos en distintas escalas, para estimar las distribuciones de transmisividad de fracturas individuales. Las propiedades de fracturas individuales son de importancia para estimar el transporte de agua y solutos; las propiedades influyen en la propagación de lechada al sellar túneles. Uno de los métodos es no paramétrico mientras que el otro se basa en el principio de multiplicación y combinatorio. El estudio verifica la utilidad de ambos métodos para estimar la probabilidad de fracturas conductivas y no conductivas y las distribuciones de transmisividad. Los datos para estimar las distribuciones de transmisividad se originan del registro de flujo de un pozo en Suecia. Los datos de frecuencia de fracturas provienen de registros de núcleo e imágenes usando un Sistema de Procesamiento de Imágenes de Pozo (BIPS). Se compararon las distribuciones estimadas de transmisividad basadas en datos del registro de flujo en secciones de 3 m (longitud de escala de la prueba L: 3 m, y escalón de longitud dL: 3 m), con transmisividades obtenidas directamente de registros detallados de flujo superpuesto el cual identifica fracturas conductivas individuales (escala de la prueba, L: 0.5 m, escalón de longitud, dL: 0.1 m). Los últimos datos se consideran una aproximación aceptable de las transmisividades de fracturas individuales; la consistencia, comparada con las distribuciones de transmisividad calculada basadas en datos de sección de 3 m, es buena para ambos métodos.

---

Résumé Deux méthodes ont été testées afin d’estimer la distribution des transmissivités de fractures unitaires; toutes deux utilisent des données issues de tests hydrauliques effectués à intervalles réguliers et de cartographies géologiques à plusieurs échelles. La connaissance des propriétés des fractures unitaires est importante pour estimer le transport d’eau et de solutés; elles influencent en outre l’étalement du coulis lors du scellement des tunnels. La première méthode est non-paramétrique, et la seconde repose sur l’analyse combinatoire et le principe de multiplication. Cette étude a vérifié l’utilité des deux méthodes pour estimer la probabilité d’occurrence de fractures conductrices et non-conductrices, et la distribution des transmissivités. Les distributions des transmissivités ont été estimées à partir de diagraphies effectuées sur un forage situé en Suède. Les densités de fracturation proviennent de carottages et d’imagerie BIPS (Borehole Image Processing System). Les distributions estimées des transmissivités, basées sur des diagraphies de flux effectuées sur des sections de 3 m (échelle du test L:3 m; pas dL:3 m), ont été comparées aux transmissivités obtenues sur des diagraphies de flux détaillées et se chevauchant, identifiant les fractures conductrices unitaires (échelle du test L: 0.5 m ; pas dL: 0.1 m). Il est admis que ces dernières données représentent une approximation satisfaisante des transmissivités des fractures unitaires; les deux méthodes sont en accord avec les distributions des transmissivités calculées à partir des données acquises sur des sections de 3 m.