Biogeochemistry and bacteriology of ferrous iron oxidation in geothermal habitats

A survey of hot, acid springs in Yellowstone Park has shown that high concentrations of ferrous and ferric iron are often present. Total ionic iron concentrations in different springs ranged from less than 1 ppm to greater than 200 ppm, and up to 50% of the ionic iron was in the ferrous form. Some of these springs also have high concentrations of reduced sulfur species (S^2? and S⁰). Significant populations of the bacterium Sulfolobus, acidocaldarius, an autotrophic organism able to live and oxidize sulfur compounds at low pH and high temperature, were present in most of these springs. The role of this organism in the oxidation of ferrous iron was investigated by incubating natural samples of water and assaying for disappearance of ferrous iron. Controls in which bacterial activity was inhibited by addition of 10% NaCl were also run. Bacterial oxidation of ferrous iron occurred in most but not all of the spring waters. The temperature optimum for oxidation varied from spring to spring, but significant oxidation occurred at temperatures of 80–85°C, but not at 90°C. Thus, 85–90°C is the upper temperature at which bacterial iron oxidation occurs; a similar upper limit has previously been reported for sulfur oxidation in the same kinds of springs. The steady-state concentrations of ferrous and ferric iron are determined by the rate at which these ions move into the spring pools with the ground water (flow rate), by the rate at which ferric iron is reduced to the ferrous state by sulfide, and by the rate of bacterial oxidation. The bacterial oxidation rate is faster than the flow rate, so that the rate of reduction of ferric iron is probably the rate-controlling reaction. In several springs, no decrease in ferrous iron occurred, even though high bacterial populations were present. It was shown that in these springs, ferrous iron oxidation occurred but the ferric iron formed was reduced back to the ferrous state again. These springs were all high in suspended sediment and the reductant was shown to be present in the sediment. X-ray diffraction revealed that the sediment contained three major ingredients, elemental sulfur, natroalunite, and quartz. Chemical analyses showed a small amount of sulfide, too little to reduce the ferric iron. Elemental sulfur itself did not reduce ferric iron but when elemental sulfur was removed from the sediment by CS₂ extraction, the activity of the sediment was abolished. It is hypothesized that the sulfide present in the sediment (possibly bound to natroalunite) reacts with elemental sulfur to form a reductant for ferric iron. The results show that bacteria can have a profound influence on the ferrous/ferric ratios of geothermal systems, but that temperature and mineral composition of the water may significantly influence the overall result.     

Palaeozoic radiometric age provinces in the Andean basement,latitudes 25°–30°S

More than fifty new K-Ar age determinations are reported for mineral separates and whole-rock samples from igneous and metamorphic basement rocks of northwestern Argentina and contiguous Chile between 25° and 30°S. The age data define three thermal events, occurring in the late Ordovician-Silurian (400–450 m.y.), mid-Carboniferous (310–340 m.y.) and Permian (225–270 m.y.), and confirm deductions of previous workers that the crystalline basement rocks of the Pampean Ranges of northwestern Argentina are not of Precambrian age, but rather evolved predominantly during the Palaeozoic. The proposed radiometric age provinces and the inferred orogenic history of the area are compared with those for the rest of South America, and it is confirmed that, by the late Ordovician, the focus of major orogenic activity in South America was located along the present western and southern margins of the craton, and tended to migrate westwards during the Palaeozoic.     

Recent environmental changes in Laguna Mar Chiquita (central Argentina): a sedimentary model for a highly variable saline lake

Abstract Laguna Mar Chiquita, a highly variable closed saline lake located in the Pampean plains of central Argentina, is presently the largest saline lake in South America (≈ 6000 km²). Recent variations in its hydrological budget have produced dry and wet intervals that resulted in distinctive lake level fluctuations. Results of a multiproxy study of a set of sedimentary cores indicate that the system has clearly recorded these hydrological variations from the end of the Little Ice Age (≈ ad 1770) to the present. Sedimentological and geochemical data combined with a robust chronology based on ²¹⁰Pb profiles and historical data provide the framework for a sedimentary model of a lacustrine basin with highly variable water depth and salinity. Lake level drops and concurrent increases in salinity promoted the development of gypsum–calcite–halite layers and a marked decrease in primary productivity. The deposits of these dry stages are evaporite‐bearing sediments with a low organic matter content. Conversely, highstands are recorded as diatomaceous organic matter‐rich muds. Average bulk sediment accumulation rose from 0·22 g cm^?2 year^?1 in lowstands to 0·32 g cm^?2 year^?1 during highstands. These results show that Laguna Mar Chiquita is a good sensor of high‐ and low‐frequency changes in the recent hydrological budget and, therefore, document climatic changes at middle latitudes in south‐eastern South America. Dry conditions were mostly dominant until the last quarter of the twentieth century, when a humid interval without precedent during the last 240 years of the lake's recorded history started. Thus, it is an ideal system to model sedimentary and geochemical response to environmental changes in a saline lacustrine basin.     

Assessment of the stability of H/V spectral ratios from ambient noise and comparison with earthquake data in the Cologne area (Germany)

Situated in an active tectonic region the highly industrialised Cologne area (Germany) suffers from moderate-sized earthquakes. Our contribution to the mitigation of earthquake risk includes a microzonation study using ambient seismic noise and earthquake recordings from two field campaigns. An analysis of these data using the horizontal-to-vertical (H/V) as well as the classical spectral ratio (CSR) technique led to the following observations and conclusions: (1) The spatial variation in the thickness of the sedimentary cover is reliably retrieved using the fundamental resonance frequency estimated from the peak in the (H/V) ratio of ambient noise. (2) This fundamental resonance frequency is stable in time, but the amplitude of the peak (the amplification factor) is not. (3) The relative amplification variation of the H/V ratio in the area should therefore be checked systematically with repeated measurements before drawing conclusions about its significance. (4) The analysis of the H/V ratio of ambient noise provides the lower frequency bound, above which amplification may occur. (5) The shapes of the spectral ratios obtained by the different methods are generally in good agreement. However, the analysis of earthquake data shows that significant amplification of ground motion may also occur at frequencies higher than the fundamental one even when thick sediments are present.     

Mercury exposure through fish consumption in the urban area of Alta Floresta in the Amazon Basin

This work addresses the mercury exposure scenarios through fish consumption in the urban area of Alta Floresta, by comparing the different patterns of mercury exposure from fish ingestion for different population groups. This study was based on field surveys that could provide background information, such as the characteristics of Hg sources, characteristics of local and regional environment, Hg concentrations in different media, and the characterization of the local urban population. The urban area of Alta Floresta is one of the most important gold-trading centers in Amazonia, where approximately 1 ton of gold has been commercialized monthly. The general adult urban population is exposed to low-level mercury concentration via fish consumption with an average daily intake of 0.2 μg/kg (b.w.) and an estimated hazard quotient of 0.7. However, the fishermen families present an average daily intake of 2.2 μg/kg (b.w.) and a hazard quotient of 8.6. The children of fishermen families between 5 and 14 years old are the main risk group for Hg exposure via fish ingestion. Based on the uncertainty analysis, the Hg fish concentrations and the fish ingestion rate were found to be the main parameters affecting the variability of the model outputs.     

Life cycle and population structure of the polychaeteFicopomatus enigmaticus (Serpulidae) in Mar Chiquita coastal lagoon,Argentina

Ficopomatus enigmaticus, a polychaete inhabiting the subtidal zone in the Mar Chiquita coastal lagoon, builds reef-like aggregates that facilitate silt accumulation. To describe the life cycle, samples were take monthly from September 1984 to September 1985. In contrast with other polychaetes, it has two oocyte generations per year; maturation of the oocytes takes approximately 4 mo. Temperature level and day length regime do not appear as environmental signals to the onset of oogenesis, although they possibly affect oogenesis growth. Two periods of spawning and recruitment were observed in November–December and April–May, when water temperature is above 18°C. Hermaphroditic individuals were not found. Sex ratio was male-biased in all months, significantly in November, February, and August (p<0.001). Monthly size-frequency distributions show distinct year-classes with early (November–December) and late (April–May) recruitment. Early recruited cohorts have two spawning periods during a 24-mo lifespan. Late cohorts have one spawning period during their 20-mo lifespan. The life cycle of this species can be summarized as follows: annual iteroparous—1 to 2 batches of small eggs per female during each lifespan, free spawning, planktotrophic larvae, sedentary suspension-feeder worms.     

Magmatic and metallogenetic episodes in the northern tin belt,cordillera real,Bolivia

New K-Ar determinations for granitoid rocks and ores from the northern Bolivian segment (ca. 15°-18° S.) of the Central Andean Cordillera Oriental (Eastern Cordillera) confirm that this region displays a remarkable repetition of magmatic activity and associated lithophile metal mineralization. Intrusion of monzogranites, in part peraluminous, and granodiorites took place in the Mid—to—Late Triassic (apparent age range: 225-202 Ma) and Late Oligocene-Early Miocene (28.4-ca. 19.2 Ma); the two plutonic domains are juxtaposed, with little or no areal overlap, along an essentially linear belt defining the inner boundary of the Central Andean magmatic arc. There is no conclusive evidence of granitoid intrusion during the intervening period, although at least two centres of Upper Cretaceous basic-intermediate hypabyssal-volcanic rocks are known. Whereas the Triassic episode simultaneously affected ca. 200 km of the belt, the Oligocene-Miocene domain experienced a longitudinal (southeastward) migration of activity which, in its later stages (22-19 Ma), coincided with the initiation of widespread volcanism and intrusion on the altiplano, to the west of the granitoid belt.Both intrusive domains may be regarded as the innermost expressions of relatively brief episodes of radical broadening of the Central Andean magmatic arc, possibly generated through abrupt, but minor, decrease in the inclination of eastward subduction at the western plate margin, and attended by a degree of crustal anatexis unattained in the outer parts of the arc. Our radiometric data permit the delimitation of two metallogenetic (W-Sn) sub-provinces in the northern part of the Bolivian tin belt. The tungsten-tin vein deposits associated with the Triassic and Tertiary plutons are very similar, although tungsten appears to be enriched relative to tin in the older domain. There is no radio-metric or petrographic evidence of significant reactivation of older hydrothermal systems in the Tertiary. The late-Early Miocene age (16.3 Ma) determined for the important Oruro Sn-Ag epithermal centre (17° 56' S.) represents an anomaly in the broad southward migration of volcanic and hydrothermal activity defined byGrant et al. (1979) in the central and southern, sub-volcanic, segments of the Bolivian tin-polymetallic belt. Minor Pb-Zn-Ag vein mineralization was probably associated with the Upper Cretaceous basic-intermediate magmatism.

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Zusammenfassung Neue K-Ar Bestimmungen für die granitoiden Gesteine und Erze aus dem nord-bolivischen Segment (ca. 15°-18° S) der mittleren andeanischen Cordillera Oriental (östlichen Cordillera) bestätigen, daß dieses Gebiet eine beachtenswerte Wiederholung der magmatischen Aktivität und der damit verbundenen Erzmineralisierung aufweist. Granodiorite und teilweise Monzogranite mit Aluminium-Überschuß sind in der Mittel- und Spät-Trias (225-202 Ma) und im Spät-Oligozän bis Früh-Miozän (28.4-ca. 19.2 Ma) eingedrungen; die beiden plutonischen Bereiche liegen mit nur geringer oder fehlender Überlappung benachbart längs einem im wesentlichen linearen Gürtel, der den inneren Rand des mittelandinischen magmatischen Bogen abgrenzt. Es gibt keine entscheidende Anzeichen für granitische Intrusionen in der dazwischen liegenden Zeit, obwohl wenigstens zwei Zentren der oberkretazischen basischen bis intermediären, hypabyssalen bis vulkanischen Gesteinen bekannt sind. Während die triassische Episode gleichzeitig ungefähr 200 km des Gebiets beeinflußte, erfuhr der oligozän-miozäne Bereich jedoch eine longitudinale (südöstliche) Wanderung der Aktivität, die, in den jüngeren Stufen, mit der Einleitung des ausgedehnten Vulkanismus und der Intrusion auf dem Altiplano, westlich des granitoiden Gebietes zusammenfiel.Die beiden intrusiven Gebiete könnte man als die innersten Vorgänge verhältnismägig kurzer Episoden einer drastischen Verbreitung des mittleren andinischen magmatischen Bogens betrachten. Diese könnten vielleicht durch die plötzliche Verringerung des Winkels der östlichen Subduktion an der westlichen Plattengrenze entstanden sein, mit einem Grad der Anatexis, der in den äußeren Teilen des Bogens nicht erreicht wurde. Unsere radiometrischen Daten ermöglichen die Abgrenzung zweier metallogenetischen (W-Sn) Unterprovinzen im nördlichen Teil des bolivischen Zinn-Gebiets. Obwohl die mit den triassischen und tertiären Plutonen verbundenen Wolfram-Zinn-Erzgänge einander sehr ähneln, scheint das Wolfram im älteren Bereich dem Zinn gegenüber etwas angereichert zu sein. Es liegen keine radiometrischen oder petrographischen Zeugnisse für eine erhebliche Reaktivierung von älteren hydrothermalen Systemen im Tertiär vor. Ein spätes früh-miozänes Alter (16.3 Ma) wurde für das wichtige Sn-Ag epithermale Zentrum von Oruro bestimmt. Dieses weicht von der allgemeinen nach S gerichteten Wanderung der vulkanischen und hydrothermalen Aktivität in den zentralen und südlichen subvulkanischen Segmenten der bolivischen Zinn-polymetallischen Gürtel ab, die vonGrant et al. (1979) beschrieben wurde. Geringere Pb-Zn-Ag-Erzgangbildung stand wahrscheinlich mit dem oberkretazischen basisch-intermediären Magmatismus in Verbindung.

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Résumé De nouvelles determinations K-Ar sur des roches granitiques et sur du minerais provenant du segment bolivien septentrional (ca. 15°-18° S) de la Cordillère orientale des Andes centrales (Cordillère est) confirme que cette région fut affectée par une activité magmatique répétée auquelle s'associa une activité metalifère riche en métaux lithophiles. Des intrusions de monzogranites, en partie peralumineux et de granodiorites se mirent en place durant le Triassique moyen et supérieur (intervalle d'âge apparent: 225-202 Ma) et durant l'Oligocène moyen et le début du Miocène (24.4-ca. 19.2 Ma). Ces deux domaines plutoniques se juxtaposent avec un recouvrement spatial faible ou nul, le long d'une ceinture essentiellement linéaire définissant la bordure interne de l'arc magmatique des Andes centrales. Bien qu'aucune indication concluante nesitue la mise en place d'intrusions granitiques durant la période intermédiaire, au moins deux centres volcaniques hypabyssaux de composition basique à intermédiaire se sont formés au Crétacé supérieur. L'épisode magmatique du Triassique a affecté simultanément ca. 200 km de la ceinture. Le domaine Oligocène-Miocène, pour sa part, a subi une migration longitudinale (sudest) de l'activité magmatique dont les étapes tardives (22-19 Ma) coîcident avec le déput d'une longue période de volcanisme et d'intrusions sur l'altiplano, à l'ouest de la ceinture granitique.celle des aggregats de grande taille, par des mécanismes de dislocation. La transition est Les deux domaines intrusifs peuvent être causés par un fort élargissement répété et bref de l'arc magmatique des Andes centrales. neut-être dû à une diminution abrupte de l'inclinaison de la zone de subduction orientale à la bordure ouest de la plaque, accompagnée par un degré d'anatexie crustale qui n'atteignit pas la partie externe de l'arc. Les résultats radiométriques obtenus permettent de délimiter deux sous-provinces métallogéniques (W-Sn) dans la partie septentrionale de la ceinture bolivienne stannifère. Les gisements filoniens d'étain et de tungsténe associés aux plutons triassiques et tertiaires sont très semblables; cependant le tungstène semble être plus abondant rapport à l'étain dans le plus vieux domaine. Il n'y a aucune évidence radiométrique ou pétrographique d'une réactivation signicative du système hydrothermal tertiaire. L'age Miocène (16.3 Ma) obtenu pour l'important centre épithermal Sn-Ag d'Oruro (17° 56' S.) représente une anomalie dans la vaste migration sud-est de l'activité volcanique et hydrothermale définie parGrant et al. (1979) dans les segments «sub-volcaniques» central et sud-est de la ceinture polymétallique et stannifére bolivienne. Une faible minéralisation filonienne Pb-Zn-Ag était probalement associée avec le magmatisme intermédiaire à basique du Crétacé supérieur.

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Influence of Site and Source Dependent Ground Motion Scenarios on the Seismic Safety of Long-span Bridges in Cologne, Germany

An overlap in frequency between the 1D resonance frequency of sediments and the vibrational frequencies of long-span bridges might lead to a strongly increased structural response of the latter. Interference of surface waves caused by reflections at dipping interfaces may introduce additional unfavourable amplifications. Therefore, the vulnerability of two bridges crossing the Rhine River in Cologne, Germany, was assessed using ground motion scenarios computed for four profiles crossing the Lower Rhine Embayment. Due to their vibrational frequencies being in the vicinity of resonant peaks in the response spectra, the Severinsbridge showed critical loading and the bridge Cologne-Deutz even exhibited grave failure according to the dynamic FE-simulations.