Steric Sea-Level Change and its Impact on the Gravity Field caused by Global Climate Change

It is sometimes assumed that steric sea-level variations do not produce a gravity signal as no net mass change, thus no change of ocean bottom pressure is associated with it. Analyzing the output of two CO₂ emission scenarios over a period of 2000 years in terms of steric sea-level changes, we try to quantify the gravitational effect of steric sea-level variations. The first scenario, computed with version 2.6 of the Earth System Climate Model developed at the University of Victoria, Canada (UVic ESCM), is implemented with a linear CO₂ increase of 1% of the initial concentration of 365 ppm and shows a globally averaged steric effect of 5.2 m after 2000 years. In the second scenario, computed with UVic ESCM version 2.7, the CO₂ concentration increases quasi-exponentially to a level of 3011 ppm and is hold fixed afterwards. The corresponding globally averaged steric effect in the first 2000 years is 2.3 m. We show, due to the (vertical) redistribution of ocean water masses (expansion or contraction), the steric effect results also in a small change in the Earth’s gravity field compared to usually larger changes associated with net mass changes. Maximum effects for computation points located on the initial ocean surface can be found in scenario 1, with the effect on gravitational attraction and potential ranging from 0.0 to −0.7·10⁻⁵ m s⁻² and −3·10⁻³ to 6·10⁻³ m² s⁻², respectively. As expected, the effect is not zero but negligible for practical applications.     

Isotopic age determinations of crystalline rocks of the Upper Harz Mountains,Germany

Dating of crystalline rocks occurring in the Upper Harz Mountains was carried out by means of U-Pb isotope investigations on zircons and sphene as well as by Rb-Sr isotope measurements on whole-rock samples and biotites.U-Pb data of euhedral and rounded, detrital zircons of the allochthonous block of the Ecker gneiss point to an age (upper intercept) of the source area of the predominantly metasedimentary rocks of about 1.6 Ga or older. The lower intercept indicates a possible metamorphic event at ca. 560 Ma in the Ecker gneiss or in the source rock of the zircons of this complex. The concordant data point of a sphene fraction from a metavolcanic sample documents contact metamorphic influence on the Ecker gneiss by the Variscan intrusions of the Upper Harz Mountains.Emplacement of the intrusions of the Harzburg gabbronorite and the Brocken and Oker granites occurred contemporaneously 293–297 Ma ago within the analytical error limits. This points to a common geotectonic cause of the ascent of the magmas. Uplift of the Ecker gneiss block, now squeezed in between Harzburg gabbronorite and Brocken granite, was connected to these processes.The mineral ages of the plutonites are close to the intrusion ages indicating fast cooling processes in shallow crustal levels.

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Zusammenfassung Eine altersmäßige Einstufung der im Oberharz vorkommenden kristallinen Gesteine wurde durch U-Pb-Isotopenuntersuchungen an Zirkonen und Titanit sowie Rb-Sr-Isotopenmessungen an Gesamtgesteinsproben und Biotiten durchgeführt.U-Pb-Daten von idiomorphen und runden, detritischen Zirkonen der allochthonen Eckergneis-Scholle deuten auf ein Alter des Ursprungsgebietes der weitgehend metasedimentären Gesteine von etwa 1. 6 Ga oder älter hin und sie weisen ferner auf ein mögliches Metamorphose-Ereignis vor rund 560 Ma im Eckergneis oder im Liefergestein der Zirkone des Eckergneises hin. Der konkordante Datenpunkt bei ca. 295 Ma einer Titanit-Fraktion aus einer Metavulkanit-Probe dokumentiert die kontaktmetamorphe Beeinflussung des Eckergneises durch die variskischen Intrusionen des Oberharzes.Die Platznahme der Intrusionen der Gesteine des Harzburger Gabbronorit-Massivs sowie des Brokken- und Oker-Granits erfolgten innerhalb der analytischen Fehlergrenzen zeitgleich vor 293–295 Ma. Dies deutet auf eine gemeinsame geotektonische Ursache des Aufdringens der Magmen. Damit verbunden war der Aufstieg der Eckergneis-Scholle, die jetzt zwischen Harzburger Gabbronorit und Brockengranit »eingeklemmt« ist.Mineralalter der Plutonite liegen nahe bei den Intrusionsaltern und weisen auf rasche Abkühlungsvorgänge in seichtem Krustenniveau hin.

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Résumé Des mesures d'âge ont été effectuées sur des roches cristallines de l'Oberharz par les méthodes de l'U-Pb sur zircon et sphène et du Rb-Sr sur roches totales et sur biotites. La méthode U-Pb, appliquée aux zircons idiomorphes et détritiques arrondis de l'écaille allochtone des gneiss d'Ecker, fournit un âge (intersection supérieure) d'environ 1,6 Ga au moins pour la source des matériaux surtout métasédimentaires. L'intersection inférieure indique la possibilité d'un événement métamorphique à ± 560 Ma soit dans les gneiss d'Ecker, soit dans les roches-sources de leurs zircons. Un résultat concordant à ± 295 Ma fourni par le sphène d'une métavolcanite enregistre l'action du métamorphisme de contact engendré dans les gneiss d'Ecker par les intrusions varisques.La mise en place des intrusions du massif gabbronoritique du Harzburg et celle des granite de Brocken et d'Ocker ont été contemporaines: âges de 293 à 297 Ma, compris dans l'intervalle d'approximation des mesures. Ce résultat est en faveur d'une même cause géotectonique pour l'ascension de ces magmas. C'est en relation avec ce processus que s'est produit le soulèvement de l'écaillé des gneiss d'Ecker, actuellement coincée entre le gabbro du Harzburg et le granite de Brocken.Les âges minéraux des plutons sont voisins des âges d'intrusion, ce qui indique un refroidissement rapide dans un niveau crustal peu profond.

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The role of ternary projections in colour displays for geochemical maps and in economic mineralogy and petrology

Ternary (triangular) diagrams show the compositional variation of three end-members, recalculated to 100%, and represent the projection into two dimensions of three or more components (since an end-member may represent the sum of more than one original component), and hence multiple space. During the present century they have been of particular importance in chemistry, the earth sciences, colour-mixing and the studies of colour that underlie the development of geochemical colour maps. Such concepts can be traced back to Newton's Opticks although he did not use an explicit ternary theory of colour mixing. Development of the trichromatic theory of colour deficiency began with Mariotte in the 17th century and was definitively established by Maxwell in the 1850s. These colour theorems underlie the development in recent years of the colour maps now in widespread use in geochemistry. The progress of regional geochemical mapping in the British Isles has gone hand-in-hand with the development of computer software and hardware. The use of multi-element colour-combined geochemical maps can be traced from early work at Imperial College by Webb and his co-workers (1964–79) to its later application in the British Geological Survey's Geochemical Atlas series (from 1983 onwards). Between 1955 and 1975 the use of ternary diagrams came to be commonly used in studies of mineralogical composition, including economic minerals, petrology, classification, and phase relationships. In igneous petrology, the quartz–alkali-feldspar–plagioclase-feldspathoid double-triangle has achieved increasing international acceptance. We illustrate these applications with examples pertinent to the Northern Highland Caledonides, with particular emphasis on the lamprophyres and associated rocks. Two distinct multivariate trends of variation are shown to be present which may warrant further investigation to elucidate their bearing on Caledonian mineralisation.     

The role of ternary projections in colour displays for geochemical maps and in economic mineralogy and petrology

Ternary (triangular) diagrams show the compositional variation of three end-members, recalculated to 100%, and represent the projection into two dimensions of three or more components (since an end-member may represent the sum of more than one original component), and hence multiple space. During the present century they have been of particular importance in chemistry, the earth sciences, colour-mixing and the studies of colour that underlie the development of geochemical colour maps. Such concepts can be traced back to Newton's Opticks although he did not use an explicit ternary theory of colour mixing. Development of the trichromatic theory of colour deficiency began with Mariotte in the 17th century and was definitively established by Maxwell in the 1850s. These colour theorems underlie the development in recent years of the colour maps now in widespread use in geochemistry. The progress of regional geochemical mapping in the British Isles has gone hand-in-hand with the development of computer software and hardware. The use of multi-element colour-combined geochemical maps can be traced from early work at Imperial College by Webb and his co-workers (1964–79) to its later application in the British Geological Survey's Geochemical Atlas series (from 1983 onwards). Between 1955 and 1975 the use of ternary diagrams came to be commonly used in studies of mineralogical composition, including economic minerals, petrology, classification, and phase relationships. In igneous petrology, the quartz–alkali-feldspar–plagioclase-feldspathoid double-triangle has achieved increasing international acceptance. We illustrate these applications with examples pertinent to the Northern Highland Caledonides, with particular emphasis on the lamprophyres and associated rocks. Two distinct multivariate trends of variation are shown to be present which may warrant further investigation to elucidate their bearing on Caledonian mineralisation.     

Oxygen Utilization and Organic Carbon Remineralization in the Upper Water Column of the Pacific Ocean

As a part of the JGOFS synthesis and modeling project, researchers have been working to synthesize the WOCE/JGOFS/DOE/NOAA global CO₂ survey data to better understand carbon cycling processes in the oceans. Working with international investigators we have compiled a Pacific Ocean data set with over 35,000 unique samples analyzed for at least two carbon species, oxygen, nutrients, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) tracers, and hydrographic parameters. We use these data here to estimate in-situ oxygen utilization rates (OUR) and organic carbon remineralization rates within the upper water column of the Pacific Ocean. OURs are derived from the observed apparent oxygen utilization (AOU) and the water age estimates based on CFCs in the upper water and natural radiocarbon in deep waters. The rates are generally highest just below the euphotic zone and decrease with depth to values that are much lower and nearly constant in water deeper than 1200 m. OURs ranged from about 0.02–10 μmol kg⁻¹yr⁻¹ in the upper water masses from about 100–1000 m, and averaged = 0.10 μmol kg⁻¹yr⁻¹ in deep waters below 1200 m. The OUR data can be used to directly estimate organic carbon remineralization rates using the C:O Redfield ratio given in Anderson and Sarmiento (1994). When these rates are integrated we obtain an estimate of 5.3 ± 1 Pg C yr⁻¹ for the remineralization of organic carbon in the upper water column of the Pacific Ocean. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Impact of the Mediterranean Outflow Water on particle dynamics in intermediate waters of the Northeast Atlantic, as revealed by Th and Th

Over the last decade ²³⁴Th has become increasingly used to study particle transport in the ocean on a timescale of weeks. The application of ²³⁴Th is mainly focused on the determination of particle and associated carbon fluxes from oceanic surface water. However, ²³⁴Th is also suitable for investigating particle dynamic from the upper ocean down to interface sediments, as illustrated by the present work which reports unexpected behavior of ²³⁴Th in intermediate waters associated with the Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW). Concentration profiles of dissolved ²³⁸U and ²²⁸Ra, and dissolved and particulate ²³⁴Th and ²²⁸Th were measured in the Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW) near the Gibraltar Straits and at two sites (36°30′N–15°35′W, Nicole; 36°27′N–10°35′W, Yseult) which had hydrographic characteristics of Meddies, i.e. MOW that propagates as eddies in the Northeastern Atlantic at intermediate depths.There are marked differences in the distribution of thorium between MOW and the surrounding Atlantic waters. At the youngest Meddy Nicole salinity maximum at 1000 m depth, ²³⁴Th(total) : ²³⁸U and ²²⁸Th(total) : ²²⁸Ra activity ratios are significantly lower than radioactive equilibrium, indicating an unusual deficit of short half-life thorium nuclides. This implies an export of thorium, presumably on particles, from intermediate Meddy Nicole waters. This process is supported by an increase of particulate thorium fluxes measured in sediment traps deployed for two weeks above and within Meddy Nicole. In contrast, offshore Meddy Yseult has more typical profiles of both thorium nuclides that are nearly in equilibrium with their parents. These results indicate that at intermediate depths, the presence of MOW affects the exchange of reactive elements between particles and dissolved forms and enhances the downward flux of particles from intermediate waters in the Northeast Atlantic.     

Tectonic heritage in drainage pattern and dynamics: the case of the French South Alpine Foreland Basin (ca. 45–20 Ma)

The spatial and temporal organization of depositional environments in drainage networks of foreland basins reflect the tectonic and erosional dynamics associated with the development of mountain belts. We provide field evidences for the initiation and evolution of a complex drainage system in the French South Alpine Foreland Basin related to Western Alps exhumation. Sedimentological and structural analyses of the Eocene–Early Miocene succession were investigated in the (1) Argens/Peyresq, (2) Barrême/Blieux/Taulanne and (3) Montmaur/St‐Disdier sectors. Combined with the existing structural data set, we propose a new model that integrates the regional tectonic activity, the palaeovalley orientation and their dynamics through time. The Eocene–Miocene deposits clearly show the existence of N–S‐oriented palaeovalleys. The systematic presence of early NE–SW‐ to N–S‐oriented strike‐slip and extensional faults in the palaeovalleys suggests that these tectonic structures were responsible for the formation of the initial N–S‐oriented basin‐floor topographies. The vertical offset of the strike‐slip faults induced sufficient accommodation space for the Cenozoic sedimentation since the Middle Eocene. It implies the creation of N–S‐oriented palaeovalleys during the northward Pyrenean‐Provençal phase, pre‐dating westward Alpine compression. Later, the Oligocene Alpine tectonic phase induced drainage expansion toward the orogenic wedge and the erosion of the exhumed internal massifs by transverse streams. The establishment of new connections between the old topographic lows formed a longitudinal drainage pattern that remains the locus of deposition in a regional sedimentary routing system. In this model, former strike‐slip faults correspond to weakness zones overprinted by the westward Alpine shortening that allowed the formation of the modern piggyback basin structure of the foreland and the long‐time preservation of the palaeovalley geometry.     

The problem of historicity in physical geography

Historicity forms for logic the direct antithesis of regularity. In recognition of this dialectical premise physical geography has attempted to remove the historical contingent element of its phenomena in order to emphasise the regularity, and by so doing legimitise its status as a scientific discipline. This has resulted in a schism between empirical knowledge and the accepted theoretical structures. The regularity of geodynamic processes is apparent only on the basis of contingent clusters that in their essential characteristics are subject to historical change. Analysis becomes therefore a question of attribution, reconstructing individual clusters of causal determinants, each cluster being described as an individual outcome rather than the embodiment of necessary laws. The concept of the historical within geography must be clearly separated from the pseudo-historical development concept, as employed in relation to the theory of deterministic chaos. The scientific methodological problem, present in geography because of the incongruence between the logical assessment and the empirical subject matter, is here considered as the basis for the application of the evolutionary epistomological theory which not only recognises this incongruence but also clarifies and makes explicable its origin.The authors gratefully acknowledge the translation of this paper rendered by Prof. Dr. E. M. Yates, King's College, London.