An analysis of failure mechanism constraints on pre-failure rock block deformation using TLS and roto-translation methods

Rockfall hazards increase the risk of train derailment along railway corridors in western Canada. In this study, repeated terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) datasets were collected every 2–3 months at three different sites along the Thompson and Fraser River corridors in British Columbia, referred to as the Goldpan, White Canyon, and Mile 109 sites. A total of 207 rockfall events occurring across all three sites between November 11, 2014 and October 18, 2016 were recorded in a database. For each of these rockfalls, pre-failure deformation was measured using a method of three-dimensional roto-translation block tracking. Each rockfall was classified by its deformation behaviour and further categorised based on failure mechanism, volume, lithology, and the roughness condition of the failure plane. Results reveal that detectable levels of deformation were measured in 33% of the total number of rockfall events using the present methods. Rotation deformation was most commonly observed in toppling failures with relatively steep joint orientations. Conversely, planar sliding blocks generally exhibited the least measurable deformation, with the majority not showing any precursory translation or rotation. It is postulated that overhanging rockfall configurations may suppress the expression of deformation in rockfall source blocks, though additional research is required to confirm this.     

The geochemistry and provenance of Apollo 16 mafic glasses

The regolith of the Apollo 16 lunar landing site is composed mainly of feldspathic lithologies but mafic lithologies are also present. A large proportion of the mafic material occurs as glass. We determined the major element composition of 280 mafic glasses (>10 wt% FeO) from six different Apollo 16 soil samples. A small proportion (5%) of the glasses are of volcanic origin with picritic compositions. Most, however, are of impact origin. Approximately half of the mafic impact glasses are of basaltic composition and half are of noritic composition with high concentrations of incompatible elements. A small fraction have compositions consistent with impact mixtures of mare material and material of the feldspathic highlands. On the basis of major-element chemistry, we identified six mafic glass groups: VLT picritic glass, low-Ti basaltic glass, high-Ti basaltic glass, high-Al basaltic glass, KREEPy glass, and basaltic-andesite glass. These glass groups encompass 60% of the total mafic glasses studied. Trace-element analyses by secondary ion mass spectroscopy for representative examples of each glass group (31 total analyses) support the major-element classifications and groupings. The lack of basaltic glass in Apollo 16 ancient regolith breccias, which provide snapshots of the Apollo 16 soil just after the infall of Imbrium ejecta, leads us to infer that most (if not all) of the basaltic glass was emplaced as ejecta from small- or moderate-sized impacts into the maria surrounding the Apollo 16 site after the Imbrium impact. The high-Ti basaltic glasses likely represent a new type of basalt from Mare Tranquillitatis, whereas the low-Ti and high-Al basaltic glasses possibly represent the composition of the basalts in Mare Nectaris. Both the low-Ti and high-Al basaltic glasses are enriched in light-REEs, which hints at the presence of a KREEP-bearing source region beneath Mare Nectaris. The basaltic andesite glasses have compositions that are siliceous, ferroan, alkali-rich, and moderately titaniferous; they are unlike any previously recognized lunar lithology or glass group. Their likely provenance is within the Procellarum KREEP Terrane, but they are not found within the Apollo 16 ancient regolith breccias and therefore were likely deposited at the Apollo 16 site post-Imbrium. The basaltic-andesite glasses are the most ferroan variety of KREEP yet discovered.     

在应用计算机解释印度拉贾斯坦邦西部贾伊萨梅尔地区比尔马尼亚盆地地质特征中地质数据的分析

最近十年来研究的地质数据包括比尔马尼亚盆地岩相的地层、岩性、岩石、粒度和地球化学资料。这些数据已进入专用的"Foxsedba"数据表以建立比尔马尼亚盆地的数据总库。采用Harward制图法在x-y轴(粒度参数和地球化学数据)上作图。该盆地各种岩相的环境解释模式都配备有"图象"软件。最后,上述资料被用来解释所推断的比尔马尼亚盆地各种岩相的沉积环境。该盆地的沉积充填物含硅质碎屑、碳酸盐和磷块岩相的混合组合,指示变幻不定的沉积环境,即有若干具间歇海进事件的沉积海退事件。结果,磷块岩主要形成一种浅水正化学沉积和异化学沉积的复杂组合。     

西秦岭温泉钼矿床成矿作用时限及其对斑岩型钼矿床系统分类制约

斑岩系统是一个涉及岩浆和热液作用的复杂系统,建立精细的斑岩系统成因模型对于寻找更为丰富的金属矿产尤为重要,成矿作用时限是建立成因模型和指导矿产勘查的关键。温泉钼矿床是西秦岭造山带内与晚三叠世花岗岩有关的斑岩型钼矿床,其在西秦岭造山带的独特发育蕴含印支期斑岩成矿作用、大陆地壳演化及矿产勘查关键科学问题。钼矿体主要赋存于温泉复式岩体Ⅱ单元和Ⅲ单元的黑云母二长花岗斑岩和似斑状二长花岗岩中,钼以细脉和浸染状矿化形式产出。赋矿岩石单元锆石U-Pb年龄为224.6±2.5Ma到216.2±1.7Ma,Ⅱ和Ⅲ单元分别侵位于~223Ma和~217Ma,持续约8Myr。辉钼矿Re-Os年龄为212.7±2.6Ma到215.1±2.6Ma,暗示晚三叠世钼成矿作用与花岗质岩浆作用密切时空关系,且成矿年龄稍晚,反映钼矿化主要发生在岩浆作用晚期阶段。成岩、成矿作用发生于华北板块与华南板块全面对接后秦岭造山带构造体制由碰撞到后碰撞的转折阶段,响应南秦岭变质变形、勉-略洋盆闭合及大别-苏鲁超高压岩石板片折返统一地质事件。黑云母K-Ar年龄为207~226Ma,可能反映~223Ma和~208Ma的岩体冷却事件和~216Ma的岩浆-热液成矿作用。锆石U-Pb、辉钼矿Re-Os和黑云母K-Ar多元同位素定年系统准确刻画岩体侵位、热液成矿与冷却事件上有所重叠,岩浆-热液分异演化充分,且具有较高的冷却速率,精确厘定温泉斑岩系统岩浆活动的"多期性"(复式岩体)、成矿事件的"瞬时性"(~214Ma)和成矿作用的"持续性"(~8Myr)。同时,系统对比全球典型斑岩钼(铜)矿床成矿动力学背景,细化分类方案,即产于挤压背景的大洋俯冲和大陆碰撞环境矿床及产于伸展背景的后碰撞、陆缘弧后和板内裂谷环境矿床。明确在大洋俯冲→大陆碰撞→后碰撞→板内裂谷旋回的四个阶段均可以产生规模的斑岩型钼(铜)矿床,且挤压向伸展过渡的构造体制转换尤其是大型矿床形成的有利环境。     

Probing the oxidation-reduction properties of terrestrially and microbially derived dissolved organic matter

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) has been shown to be an integral component in biogeochemical electron transfer reactions due to its demonstrated ability to facilitate redox reactions. While the role of DOM as a facilitator of electron transfer processes has been demonstrated, greater knowledge would lead to better understanding of the structural components responsible for redox behavior, such as quinones and nitrogen and sulfur (N/S) functional groups. This investigation uses direct scan voltammetry (DSV) coupled with fluorescence and NMR spectroscopy as well as thermochemolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to elucidate the organic moieties responsible for facilitating electron transfer reactions. We contrast electrochemical properties and structural details of three organic matter isolates from diverse sources; Great Dismal Swamp DOM (terrestrially derived, highly aromatic), Pony Lake DOM (microbially derived, highly aliphatic) and Toolik Lake (terrestrially derived, photochemically and microbially altered) with juglone (a redox-active model quinone). Aromatic and phenolic constituents were detected (by ¹³C NMR) and recovered (by thermochemolysis GC-MS) from all three fulvic acid samples, highlighting the ubiquity of these compounds and suggesting that the quinone-phenol redox couple is not limited to DOM derived from lignin precursors. The range of hydroxy-benzene and benzoic acid derivatives may explain the lack of a single pair of well-defined oxidation and reduction peaks in the DSV scans. The presence of a wide-range of hydroxylated benzoic acid isomers and other redox-active aromatic residues implies that native DOM possesses overlapping redox potentials analogous to their characteristic range of pK_a values.     

Temporal and chemical connections between plutons and ignimbrites from the Mount Princeton magmatic center

The Mount Princeton magmatic center, located in central Colorado, consists of the epizonal Mount Princeton batholith, the nested Mount Aetna caldera, and volumetrically minor leucogranites. New CA-TIMS U/Pb zircon ages indicate the majority of the Mount Princeton batholith was emplaced during a period of regional ignimbrite quiescence. The structurally highest unit of quartz monzonite yields a ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age of 35.80 ± 0.10 Ma, and the youngest dated unit of the quartz monzonite is a porphyritic unit that yields a ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age of 35.37 ± 0.10 Ma. Using the exposed, dated volume of the quartz monzonite and new geochronology yields an estimated pluton filling rate of ~0.002 km³/a. This rate is comparable to the accumulation rates published for other plutons, and at least an order of magnitude slower than fluxes necessary to support accumulation of large eruptible magma volumes. Geochronology for the two large ignimbrites spatially associated with the batholith indicates a temporal disconnect between the vast majority of pluton building and explosive eruption of magma. The Wall Mountain Tuff erupted from a source in the same geographic area as the Mount Princeton batholith at 37.3 Ma (Ar/Ar sanidine), but no structural evidence of a caldera or temporally associated plutonic rocks is known. The Badger Creek Tuff erupted at 34.3 Ma (Ar/Ar sanidine) during the formation of the Mount Aetna caldera in the southern portion of the batholith. Our ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age for the Badger Creek Tuff is 34.47 ± 0.05. The only analyzed plutonic rocks of similar age to the Badger Creek Tuff are an extra-caldera dike with a ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age of 34.57 ± 0.08 Ma, a ring dike with a ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age of 34.48 ± 0.09 Ma, and a portion of the Mount Aetna pluton with a ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age of 34.60 ± 0.13 Ma. The small volume intrusions related to the eruption of the Badger Creek Tuff are chemically similar to the ignimbrite and show no signature of crystal–liquid separation in the shallow crust.     

The origins of marine and non-marine boulder deposits: a brief review

Natural Hazards - We identify 14 mechanisms, marine and non-marine, one man made, that result and could result in the formation of boulder deposits after reviewing issues associated with clast...     

Eutrophication and salinization of urban and rural kettle lakes in Kalamazoo and Barry Counties,Michigan, USA

Salinization and eutrophication caused by runoff of road salt and nutrients was assessed in three kettle lakes, two (Woods and Asylum Lakes) located in urban Kalamazoo, MI, and one (Brewster Lake) in rural Hastings, MI. Profiles of dissolved O₂, conductivity, pH, and temperature were measured in situ, at half meter intervals. Water samples were collected at discrete depth intervals of 1 m and analyzed for Fe(II), Mn(II), ammonium, alkalinity, Cl^?, Na, Mg, K and Ca. Results of this study indicate that all three lakes are eutrophic with anoxic bottom waters. Conductivity was much greater, and Cl^? levels were more than 100 times greater, in the two urban lakes compared to the rural lake, demonstrating the significant impact of road salt deicers on urban lake water chemistry.     

Constraining the timing of porphyry mineralization in northwest Iran in relation to Lesser Caucasus and Central Iran; Re–Os age data for Sungun porphyry Cu–Mo deposit

The Neo-Tethyan subduction in Iran is characterized by the Urumieh–Dokhtar magmatic arc (UDMA), formed by northeast-ward subduction of the oceanic crust beneath the central Iran. This belt coincides with the porphyry copper metallogenic belt that comprises several metallogenic zones, including Ahar–Jolfa in northwest Iran. The Ahar–Jolfa metallogenic zone encompasses two main batholiths of Qaradagh and Sheyvardagh and numerous intrusive bodies of Cenozoic, which have produced many base and precious metal deposits and prospects. The former is considered as continuation of the Meghri–Ordubad pluton in South Armenian Block (SAB), which also hosts porphyry copper deposits (PCDs). The Sungun PCD is the largest occurrence in northwest Iran. Rhenium-Osmium ages of Sungun molybdenites are early Miocene and range between 22.9 ± 0.2 and 21.7 ± 0.2 Ma. Comparison of the ages obtained here with published ages for mineralization across the region suggests the following sequence. The earliest porphyry Cu–Mo mineralization event in northwest Iran is represented by Saheb Divan PCD of late Eocene age, which is followed by the second epoch of middle Oligocene, including the Cu–Mo–Au mineralization at Qarachilar and the Haftcheshmeh PCD. Mineralization in Sungun, Masjed Daghi, Kighal and Niaz deposits corresponds to the third mineralization event in northwest Iran. The first epoch in northwest Iran postdates all Eocene mineralizations in SAB, while the second epoch is coeval with Paragachay and the first-stage of Kadjaran PCDs. Its third epoch is younger than all mineralizations in SAB, except the second stage in Kadjaran PCD. Finally, the Cu mineralization epochs in northwest Iran are older than nearly all PCDs and prospects in Central Iran (except the Bondar Hanza PCD), altogether revealing an old to young trend along the UDMA and the porphyry Cu belt towards southeast, resulted from diachronous, later closure of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic basin in central and SE Iran.     

Preparation and Measurement of Cassiterite for Sn Isotope Analysis

Increased interest in the fractionation of Sn isotopes has led to the development of several techniques for preparing cassiterite (SnO₂, the primary ore of Sn) for isotopic analysis. Two distinct methods have been applied in recent isotopic studies of cassiterite: (a) reduction to tin metal with potassium cyanide (KCN) at high temperature (800 °C), with subsequent dissolution in HCl, and (b) reduction to a Sn solution with hydriodic acid (HI) at low temperature (100 °C). This study compares the effectiveness and accuracy of these two methods and contributes additional methodological details. The KCN method consistently yielded more Sn (> 70% in comparison with < 5%), does not appear to fractionate Sn isotopes at high temperatures over a 2‐hour period and produced consistent Sn isotope values at flux mass ratios of ≥ 4:1 (flux to mineral) with a minimum reduction time of 40 min. By means of a distillation experiment, it was demonstrated that HI could volatilise Sn, explaining the consistently low yields by this method. Furthermore, the distillation generated Sn vapour, which is up to 0.38‰ per mass unit different from the starting material, the largest induced Sn fractionation reported to date. Accordingly, the HI method is not recommended for cassiterite preparation for Sn isotopic analysis.