Seafloor mapping for geohazard assessment: state of the art

During the last two decades, increasing use of full-coverage sonic mapping of the seafloor has made us more aware of the large and different number of seafloor processes and events bearing significant geohazard potential. This awareness combines with the increasing use of the seafloor for infrastructure and with the high density of population and settlement on the coast. Seafloor mapping is the first step in making a census of the geohazard-bearing features present in a given offshore area. It often provides the only tool for a comprehensive, although non-specific, seafloor geohazard assessment over large areas that are scarcely groundtruthed by acoustic prospection and seafloor sampling. However, the characterization of geohazard features on a morphological basis alone is limited, and more detailed investigations are needed to define the character and state of activity of potentially hazardous features. Such investigations include the use of deep-tow or autonomous platforms designed to acquire high-resolution data at depth as well as in situ measurements, both being very expensive activities not applicable over large areas. Thus seafloor mapping is often not only the first and the main but also the only tool for a comprehensive seafloor geohazard assessment. This special issue represents an example of the diversity of approaches to seafloor geohazard assessment and summarizes the present state of this discipline. Both the diverse technologies applied and the specific aims of offshore geohazard assessment brought different communities to deal with the study of seafloor processes and events from remarkably distinct viewpoints. We identified three end members in offshore geohazard assessment: (1) geohazard assessment ??sensu stricto??, (2) ??engineering?? geohazard assessment, (3) ??non-specific?? geohazard assessment. These are being conducted by industry, academia and public agencies in charge of civil protection and land-use planning and management. Understanding the needs and geohazard perception of the different groups is a necessary step for a profitable collaboration in such an interesting and rapidly developing field of marine geology.     

The mid-IR radio correlation at high angular resolution: NGC253

We present high angular resolution (1.2), narrow band (/=0.1) images of the nucleus of NGC253 at three wavelengths in the mid-IR (8.5, 10.0, and 12.5 m). We find that most of the mid-IR flux in the nucleus of NGC253 derives from a very small region 120 pc in diameter. Within this small region there are three spatially and spectrally distinct IR components: two bright compact sources, and a surrounding envelope of low level, diffuse emission. The mid-IR and 6cm radio are loosely correlated in position but not in brightness. The implication is that the mid-IR - radio correlation may begin to break down on small spatial scales relevant to individual star forming regions and large individual sources. These variations in the mid-IR spectra and in the radio-IR correlation imply that the nuclear emission is excited by more than one mechanism and source type.     

Petrogenesis and syntectonic emplacement in the early Proterozoic of south-central Finland: a reversely zoned diorite-granodiorite and a granite

The Hernemäki and Sydänmaa granitoid plutons in southern Finland lie within the Svecokarelian metagreywackes, with an approximate age of 1.9 Ga. The Hernemäki porphyritic granite was emplaced and deformed early in the regional D₂ deformation, and acquired a rectilinear foliation. The Sydänmaa pluton has a mainly concentric foliation, and its intrusion spanned D₂. It was probably emplaced as a ballooning pluton. The magmas of the two plutons were possibly derived from a similar source, but evolved independently. Both plutons show plagioclasebiotite-hornblende fractionation. The Sydänmaa pluton is reversely zoned, with a granodiorite rim and a diorite core.Crystal-residual liquid segregation in a deep magma chamber produced a normal geochemical stratification. This fractionated magma was drained from the top down, and injected into a higher, final chamber. Hence, the granodiorite was emplaced before the diorite. There is a component of normal zonation, which suggests that early hornblende crystals were incorporated in the most fractionated granodiorite.

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Zusammenfassung Die Hernemäki- und Sydänmaa-Granite in Südfinnland liegen innerhalb der svecokarelischen Metagrauwacken und haben ein ungefähres Alter von 1,9 Ga. Der porphyrische Hernemäki-Granit intrudierte frühzeitig während der regionalen D, Deformation. Er wurde zur gleichen Zeit deformiert, woraus eine geradlinige Schieferung resultierte. Der Sydänmaa-Granit, dessen Intrusoin die D,-Phase überdauerte, zeigt dagegen eine überwiegend konzentrische Schieferung. Sehr wahrscheinlich stieg er als ballonförmiger Granit auf.Die Magmen der zwei Plutone entstammen eventuell derselben Quelle, entwickelten sich aber unabhängig voneinander. Beide zeigen Plagioklas-Biotit-Hornblende Fraktionierung. Der Sydänmaa-Granit ist umgekehrt zoniert, er hat einen Granodiorit-Rand und einen Diorit-Kern. Residuale Flüssigkeitsdifferenzierung in einer tiefgelegenen Magmenkammer erzeugte eine normale geochemische Abfolge. Dieses fraktionierte Magma floß vom Top des Plutons nach unten ab und wurde in eine höher gelegene Kammer injiziert. Also intrudierte der Granodiorit vor dem Diorit. Es existiert eine Komponente normaler Zonierung, was für eine Aufnahme früh gebildeter Hornblendekristalle in den am stärksten fraktionierten Granodiorit spricht.

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Résumé Les plutons granitoïdes de Hernemäki et Sydänmaa (Finlande méridionale) sont inclus dans les métagrauwackes svecocaréliennes, avec un âge approximatif de 1,9 Ga. Lors du début de la déformation régionale D₂, le granite prophyrique de Hernemäki s'est mis en place et a été déformé, acquérant ainsi une structure linéaire. Le pluton de Sydänmaa, dont l'intrusion a dépassé la phase D₂, possède une schistosité essentiellement concentrique. Il a été probablement mis en place par »ballooning«. Il est possible que les magmas des deux plutons dérivent d'une source similaire, mais ils ont évolué de manière indépendante. Les deux plutons montrent un fractionnement par cristallisation du plagioclase, de la biotite et de la hornblende. Celui de Sydänmaa présente une zonation inverse: bordure granodioritique et coeur dioritique. La séparation des cristaux et du liquide résiduel dans une chambre magmatique profonde a engendré une stratification géochimique normale. La partie supérieure de cet ensemble fractionné a ensuite été injectée dans une chambre définitive plus élevée, suivie des parties plus profondes: de la sorte, la granodiorite s'est mise en place avant la diorite. Il existe une composante de zonation normale, qui laisse supposer que de la hornblende, cristallisée lors des premiers stades, a été incorporée à la fraction granodioritique ultime.

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Fixed-ammonium in clays associated with crude oils

The association of ammonium (NH₄⁺) silicates with organic-rich sedimentary environments has stimulated interest in the chemical cycle of N, and its possible application as an indicator of in situ organic maturation reactions or crude oil migration. Fixed-NH₄ in clay minerals was determined from three hydrocarbon occurrences of similar depositional environment but different ages, depth and thermal maturity, to determine whether anomalously high NH₄-substitution occurs near mature hydrocarbons. Results show higher fixed-NH₄ concentrations in marginally mature mudstones than in immature sediments. The highest fixed-NH₄ concentrations were found in clays from sandstone reservoirs containing migrated crude oil.Fixed-NH₄ in clays from Holocene oil seep sediments in the Gulf of Mexico continental slope, offshore Louisiana, averages 0.08 wt % and increases with depth in shallow cores (420 cm), reflecting an early diagenetic trend that is apparently not influenced by migrating crude oil. Programmed pyrolysis shows that the sediments are thermally immature (av.T_max = 419°C). High Hydrogen Index values (av.= 359mg/g) are the result of biodegraded crude oil, and a high Oxygen Index (av.= 182mg/g) reflects the presence of authigenic carbonate.Fixed-NH₄ averages 0.16 wt % in Wilcox Group (Eocene) mudstones enclosing two sandstone reservoirs at Fordoche Field, onshore Louisiana. In comparison to these mudstones, anomalously high NH₄-fixation appears to occur in reservoir clay minerals. Pyrolysis shows that the sediments are marginally mature for crude oil generation (av.T_max = 432°C). Average Hydrogen Index (187 mg/g) and Oxygen Index values (75 mg/g) are consistent with oil-prone Type II and Type III kerogen. Increased pyrolysis Production Index values and solvent extraction shows the presence of migrated crude oil. This suggests that a reaction which releases NH₃ during crude oil generation or migration is recorded byNH₄⁺ substitution in clays.Fixed-NH₄ and total organic carbon (TOC) at Fordoche Field show no statistically significant correlation, suggesting that NH₄⁺ substitution in clay minerals is not simply related to the amount of organic matter in the section, but is also influenced by the presence of crude oil. Once NH₄⁺ has been fixed in clays, it is a more stable hydrocarbon proximity indicator than pore fluid tracers, because it is less influenced by later chemical or geological changes.     

Influence of salt front position on the occurrence of uncommon marine fishes in the Hudson River estuary

Six species of marine fishes, the Atlantic cutlassfish Trichiurus lepturus; planehead filefish, Monacanthus hispidus; guaguanche, Sphyraena guachancho; pigfish, Orthopristic chrysoptera; freckled blenny, Hypsoblenius ionthas; and short bigeye, Pristigenys alta, were observed for the first time in the Hudson River estuary in 1985. Their occurrence was associated with low freshwater runoff and the resulting upstream penetration of the salt front to historic levels. These conditions may have facilitated the dispersal of marine fishes from coastal areas into the lower Hudson River estuary.     

Boundary-layer flow structures associated with particle reentrainment

Measurements of near-surface longitudinal and vertical wind velocity components associated with particle reentrainment from a flat surface have been examined in a wind tunnel. Sparsely covered particle beds were used to assure that observed reentrainment events resulted primarily from the action of fluid forces. Characteristic velocity patterns were found to be associated with a majority of particle reentrainment events examined. These characteristics have been categorized and examined as ensemble averages. The flow pattern most frequently observed during particle reentrainment was termed Ejection-Sweep (E-S) and is very similar to organized fluid motions previously observed in laboratory flows and in the atmospheric boundary layer. A simple two-tiered E-S pattern recognition scheme is described which strives to identify particle reentrainment events objectively based on flow characteristics alone. The first step is to identify potential E-S patterns using criteria which identify a characteristic longitudinal acceleration, and the second step is to use threshold values of pattern characteristics to accept or reject these first-tier patterns. Pattern recognition results are presented in terms of the ability to identify reentrainment events versus false identifications, and show an exponential growth in false identifications with an increasing number of reentrainment events identified.     

Ground Water Monitoring Statistics Update: Part I: Progress Since 1988

Current federal ground water monitoring statistical regulation dates from the revised RCRA Subtitle C Final Rule of 1988. That rule was a considerable advance over previous RCRA statistical rules. However, two major problem areas remained: facility-wide false positive rate (FWFPR) control and spatial variability. Progress has been made in the 1991 Subtitle D Final Rule and in guidance: the 1992 Addendum to Interim Final Guidance in particular includes a substantial conceptual advance toward resolving the FWFPR problem. Other areas of improvement include normality testing and distribution assumptions, dropping the four independent samples per monitoring period requirement, allowing a preliminary evaluation short of a 40 CFR Part 258 Appendix II assessment upon finding a statistically significant increase, and suggesting superior alternatives to analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and tests of proportions.
The problem of dealing with natural spatial variability remains. Although certain techniques listed in the regulations can control for inherent spatial variability and the performance standards require doing so "when necessary," little attention has been paid to the ubiquity of such spatial variation. Moreover, regulatory traditions favoring upgradient-downgradient comparisons often make control of natural spatial variation difficult and ineffective. With new. lined facilities easily implemented statistical solutions are available; however, dealing with the several existing solid waste facilities which will now be regulated under Subtitle D will present major challenges.
In short, the 1988 revision of the Subtitle C rules made it more possible to provide statistically sound monitoring programs, and there has been steady progress since then. Challenges remain, however. These vary from slate to slate, particularly with regard to controlling false positives and false negatives in the presence of natural spatial variability.     

The potential of natural ecosystem self-purifying measures for controlling nutrient inputs

Most ecosystems have a certain assimilative capacity regarding plant nutrient or biodegradable organic matter. Knowledge of the metabolizing processes of different ecosystems enable the use of natural systems for pollution abatement from agricultural, domestic and industrial sources. Such ecologically engineered natural systems are often very cost efficient. At the Centre for Soil and Environmental Research (JORDFORSK) studies of degradation processes and the fate of plant nutrients in small streams, ponds, wetlands, vegetative filter strips and soil are being conducted in order to gain experience with and develop self purifying methods. Preliminary results show that denitrification in streams remove only a minor part of the annual nitrogen (N) transport (1–15%), but that this process can remove a considerable part of the N transport during summer. Constructed ponds and wetlands in streams draining agricultural areas showed 10–56% retention of soil particles, 23–40% of phosphorous (P) and 5–13% of N. Narrow ponds had a higher efficiency than wide ponds per unit surface area. Short-term experiments with vegetative strips treating agricultural runoff show a sediment removal of over 95%, a P removal from 80–90% and N removal between 60 and 75%. A multistage subsurface constructed wetland treating domestic waste-water removed an average of 97% P, 91% BOD, 80% of suspended solids, 55% N and 99.9% E. coli over the first 18 months of operation. Preliminary results from a multistage plant with constructed ponds and wetlands treating landfill leachate show high treatment efficiency for the same parameters. A rapid infiltration plant in northern Norway showed an average removal of 99% P, 90% COD and 73% N after 4 years of operation. These results show that self purifying measures offer potential for design of pollution abatement systems for agricultural as well as domestic purposes in the Norwegian climate.