ELF and VLF wave generation by HF heating: A comparison of AM and CW techniques

Antenna field 2 of the Tromsø Heating facility consists of six rows of six horizontal crossed full wave dipoles aligned with the rows running geographic east-west. In previous experiments on ELF/VLF wave generation it has been the practice to feed the rows in parallel, with HF radiation amplitude modulated at the ELF/VLF frequency it was desired to radiate (AM configuration). Here we describe how the antenna array was also configured so that it could be fed with a continuous wave (CW) input power but still carry information at an ELF/VLF frequency. To effect this the three southern most rows of the antenna array were driven with a CW signal at 4.04 MHz and the three northernmost rows with a CW signal at frequency greater than 4.04 MHz by the ELF/VLF frequency it was desired to radiate (CW configuration). Experiments were performed with modulation/difference frequencies of 565 and 2005 Hz and the signals were received at the Lycksele Geophysical Observatory, 500 km south of the heating facility. The signals were typically 11 dB greater in the AM than the CW configuration, despite the fact that the average power delivered to the ionosphere in the CW configuration was four times that in the AM configuration. Significant harmonic radiation (both odd and even) was produced in the AM configuration but no harmonic radiation was detected in the CW configuration. A simple theory has been developed to model the fields produced by HF heating using the two techniques (AM,CW). A good agreement has been obtained between the experimental observations and model computations. The model has been extended to show how the relative efficiency of generation, AM/CW, varies with the frequency of the ELF/VLF radiation and HF antenna element spacing. Radiation patterns for the ‘ionospheric ELF/VLF antenna’ have also been derived for the two generation techniques.     

小应力变化触发大地震的研究

近年来,地震的孕育和发生是否可以用临界现象来模拟的问题引起地震学家的广泛关注.研究这个问题的方法之一是检验小应力变化是否确实触发大地震发生.这种检验必须具备两个条件:第一是作用在地震孕震断层上的小应力变化,第二是选择地震发生需要不同环境应力水平的地震.相同量级的小应力变化对于不同环境应力水平下发生地震的影响如果没有区别,则触发效应不存在;如果有明显差别,则触发效应存在.     

Calcium carbonate dissolution in deep sea sediments: reconciling microelectrode, pore water and benthic flux chamber results

We report the benthic fluxes of O₂, titration alkalinity (TA), Ca²⁺, NO₃⁻, PO₄³⁻, and Si(OH)₄ from in situ benthic flux chamber incubations on the Ceara Rise and Cape Verde Plateau and compare them to previously published results. We find within analytical uncertainty that the TA flux is twice the calcium flux, suggesting that dissolution/precipitation of CaCO₃ is the principal mechanism controlling benthic TA and Ca²⁺ fluxes. At sites where the sediments contain significant (>35%) CaCO₃ and the overlying waters are supersaturated with respect to CaCO₃, the ratios of the total dissolution rate to the remineralization rate are significantly less than at all other study sites. We propose that these observations can be explained by precipitation of fresh CaCO₃ at the supersaturated sediment surface followed by redissolution deeper in the sediments because of metabolically-produced CO₂. A numerical simulation is presented to demonstrate the feasibility of this explanation. In addition, surface exchange reactions in high-CaCO₃ sediments coupled with high rates of particle mixing may also impact rates of metabolic dissolution and depress chamber-derived estimates of carbonate alkalinity and calcium benthic fluxes. These results suggest that at supersaturated, high CaCO₃ locations, previous models of sediment diagenesis may have overestimated the impact of metabolic dissolution on the preservation of CaCO₃ deposited on the sea floor.     

Focal mechanism dependence of static stress triggering of earthquakes

We perform a global statistical investigation into the problem of Coulomb stress triggering of earthquakes by using the Harvard CMT catalogue of shallow earthquakes from 1976 to 2001. We consider ‘earthquake pairs’, i.e., pairs of successive earthquakes occurring near each other with similar focal mechanisms, and address the problem of whether or not the change of the Coulomb failure stress (CFS) produced by the first earthquake of the pair ‘encourages’ the occurrence of the second one. An interesting feature is that such a Coulomb stress-triggering phenomenon has an apparent focal mechanism dependence: for thrust earthquakes, a more evident triggering effect can be observed.     

6: Classification of VMS deposits: Lessons from the South Uralides

VMS deposits of the South Urals developed within the evolving Urals palaeo-ocean between Silurian and Late Devonian times. Arc-continent collision between Baltica and the Magnitogorsk Zone (arc) in the south-western Urals effectively terminated submarine volcanism in the Magnitogorsk Zone with which the bulk of the VMS deposits are associated. The majority of the Urals VMS deposits formed within volcanic-dominated sequences in deep seawater settings. Preservation of macro and micro vent fauna in the sulphide bodies is both testament to the seafloor setting for much of the sulphides but also the exceptional degree of preservation and lack of metamorphic overprint of the deposits and host rocks. The deposits in the Urals have previously been classified in terms of tectonic setting, host rock associations and metal ratios in line with recent tectono-stratigraphic classifications. In addition to these broad classes, it is clear that in a number of the Urals settings, an evolution of the host volcanic stratigraphy is accompanied by an associated change in the metal ratios of the VMS deposits, a situation previously discussed, for example, in the Noranda district of Canada.Two key structural settings are implicated in the South Urals. The first is seen in a preserved marginal allochthon west of the Main Urals Fault where early arc tholeiites host Cu–Zn mineralization in deposits including Yaman Kasy, which is host to the oldest macro vent fauna assembly known to science. The second tectonic setting for the South Urals VMS is the Magnitogorsk arc where study has highlighted the presence of a preserved early forearc assemblage, arc tholeiite to calc-alkaline sequences and rifted arc bimodal tholeiite sequences. The boninitc rocks of the forearc host Cu–(Zn) and Cu–Co VMS deposits, the latter hosted in fragments within the Main Urals Fault Zone (MUFZ) which marks the line of arc-continent collision in Late Devonian times. The arc tholeiites host Cu–Zn deposits with an evolution to more calc-alkaline felsic volcanic sequences matched with a change to Zn–Pb–Cu polymetallic deposits, often gold-rich. Large rifts in the arc sequence are filled by thick bimodal tholeiite sequences, themselves often showing an evolution to a more calc-alkaline nature. These thick bimodal sequences are host to the largest of the Cu–Zn VMS deposits.The exceptional degree of preservation in the Urals has permitted the identification of early seafloor clastic and hydrolytic modification (here termed halmyrolysis sensu lato) to the sulphide assemblages prior to diagenesis and this results in large-scale modification to the primary VMS body, resulting in distinctive morphological and mineralogical sub-types of sulphide body superimposed upon the tectonic association classification.It is proposed that a better classification of seafloor VMS systems is thus achievable using a three stage classification based on (a) tectonic (hence bulk volcanic chemistry) association, (b) local volcanic chemical evolution within a single edifice and (c) seafloor reworking and halmyrolysis.     

Lithium isotopes in the system Qz-Ms-fluid:An experimental study

The fractionation of lithium isotopes among quartz, muscovite, and a chloride-bearing aqueous fluid has been investigated experimentally at 400°-500°C and 50-100 MPa. Experiments were performed for 15-60 days in cold seal vessels with natural mineral specimens. Lithium was introduced primarily through the fluid, which also contained KCl and HCl. In most runs, the fluid was prepared with the L-SVEC standard (δ⁷Li = 0) and was 1 M in total chloride with K/Li/H = 100/10/1. In two experiments, a ⁶Li spike was employed. The experiments demonstrate that quartz and muscovite are susceptible to pronounced, rapid shifts in Li isotopic composition by diffusion through interaction with a Li-bearing fluid, particularly at 500°C. At 500°C, fractionation factors were determined to be Δ_{quartz-aqueous} ≅ +8 to + 12‰ and Δ_{muscovite-aqueous} ≅ +18 to + 20‰. An intermineral fractionation factor is given by Δ_{muscovite-quartz} ≈ +9‰. At 400°C, the results suggest Δ_{quartz-aqueous} ≈ +4 to + 6‰. The study provides evidence of systematic fractionation in lithium isotopes at the temperatures of some magmatic processes, such as those associated with porphyry-type ore systems and pegmatites.     

基于机载微波辐射计探测大气水汽通道饱和问题研究

183.31 GHz微波辐射计在探测低含量水汽时具有优势,但也存在通道饱和问题,定量研究该问题对明确该类型仪器探测水汽能力和适用范围具有重要意义.基于天津市人工影响天气办公室增雨飞机运-12搭载的183.31 GHz微波辐射计GVR(G-band water Vapor Radiometer),采用探空资料对该辐射计4...